Predicting depth translocation of base cations after forest liming: results from long-term experiments

Forest liming is a common measure to counteract soil acidification. In forest practice, lime is applied to the forest floor where it changes the chemical properties. However, little is known about the depth impact of liming and the depth translocation of lime components. To investigate the long-term impact of forest liming, several study plots have been established in the 1980s in Germany in stands with different site conditions. We analysed soil chemical data obtained during the last 28?years from 45 of the study plots. We examined the depth impact of liming and predicted the main factors responsible for the increase in Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) stocks after liming in the mineral soil using multiple linear regression analyses (MLR). Stocks of Ca and Mg as well as base saturation (BS) showed a strong depth gradient with significant differences between limed and control plots down to 40?cm of the mineral soil. About 65–70?% of applied Ca and Mg were recovered in the forest floor and the upper 40?cm of the mineral soil. BS in 0–40?cm increased by a mean of 11?%. MLR models could explain 48–74?% of the variation in mean changes of Ca and Mg in 0–10, 10–20 and 20–40?cm soil depth when soil and climate variables, amount of applied lime and years after liming are included in the model. After testing the model robustness with a cross-validating procedure, we concluded that these models might be applied to many regions in Central Europe with comparable soil and climate conditions and thus, have widespread application.     

Forest liming durably impact the communities of ectomycorrhizas and fungal epigeous fruiting bodies

? Liming is a forestry practice used to counteract forest decline in acidic soils. It consists of direct Ca and Mg input to forest soil, which restores tree mineral nutrition, but also modifies microbial communities in soil. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of liming on both belowground (ectomycorrhizal root tips) and aboveground (epigeous sporocarps) fungal communities.

? Results showed that the modification of soil chemical properties (pH, and Ca-Mg contents versus total free Al and Fe concentrations) was a stronger factor of ECM community structuring than tree host. The species appearing in limed plots were ubiquist or known as good competitors and replaced acidophilic and stress species.

? At the sporocarp level, tree host was a stronger factor of community structuring than soil chemical properties associated with liming. On the whole, there was a shift in the community composition from a typical acidophilic forest fungal community of medium altitude in the untreated plots to a less typical one, with the reduced dominance of acidophilic fungi while many late-stage forest species appeared.

? We finally suggest a marker species (Russula ochroleuca) to assess both above and belowground effects of liming on ectomycorrhizal communities.

     

不同经营模式对贵州毛竹林分质量的影响

研究了母竹林、材用林和景观林3种经营模式的毛竹林在林分结构和土壤理化性质上的差异。结果显示：不同经营模式的毛竹林,其林分结构、植物多样性指数、地上生物量以及土壤理化性质的变化规律符合毛竹林结构变化的一般规律,这些经营模式可在生产上应用;景观林是一种近自然经营模式,竹林生产力较小,年龄结构老化,土壤理化性质较好;材用林新生竹径级和株数率呈上升趋势,土壤质量指标与景观林间差异显著;母竹林初次强度采伐降低了林分质量,提高了小径竹株数,是一种破坏性经营模式,由于经营措施的频繁干扰,土壤性质界于材用林与景观林之间;3种经营模式的经营措施可相互借鉴。     

Changes of soil chemistry,stand nutrition,and stand growth at two Scots pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> L.) sites in Central Europe during 40 years after fertilization,liming, and lupine introduction

Long-term (40 years) effects of two soil amelioration techniques [NPKMgCa fertilization + liming; combination of PKMgCa fertilization, liming, tillage, and introduction of lupine (Lupinus polyphyllus L.)] on chemical topsoil properties, stand nutrition, and stand growth at two sites in Germany (Pfaffenwinkel, Pustert) with mature Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest were investigated. Both sites are characterized by base-poor parent material, historic N and P depletion by intense litter-raking, and recent high atmospheric N input. Such sites contribute significantly to the forested area in Central Europe. Amelioration resulted in a long-term increase of pH, base saturation, and exchangeable Ca and Mg stocks in the topsoil. Moreover, significant losses of the forest floor in organic carbon (OC) and nitrogen stocks, and a decrease of the C/N ratio in the topsoil were noticed. The concentrations and stocks of OC and N in the mineral topsoil increased; however, the increases compensated only the N, but not the OC losses of the forest floor. During the recent 40 years, the N nutrition of the stands at the control plots improved considerably, whereas the foliar P, K, and Ca concentrations decreased. The 100-fascicle weights and foliar concentrations of N, P, Mg, and Ca were increased after both amelioration procedures throughout the entire 40-year period of investigation. For both stands, considerable growth acceleration during the recent 40 years was noticed on the control plots; the amelioration resulted in an additional significant long-term growth enhancement, with the NPKMgCa fertilization liming + being more effective than the combination of PKMgCa fertilization, liming, tillage, and introduction of lupine. The comprehensive evaluation of soil, foliage, and growth data revealed a key relevance of the N and P nutrition of the stands for their growth, and a change from initial N limitation to a limitation of other growth factors (P, Mg, Ca, and water).     

秦岭南坡中山地带华北落叶松人工林对土壤的影响

秦岭南坡中山地带华北落叶松人工林对土壤的影响雷瑞德，党坤良，张硕新，谭芳林（西北林学院森林资源保护系杨陵７１２１００）关键词华北落叶松，土壤养分状况，阳离子交换量，酶活华北落叶松（Ｌａｒｉｘｐｒｉｎｃｉｐｉｓ－ｒｕｐｐｒｅｃｈｃｉｉＭａｒｙｒ．）天然...     

鄱阳湖流域水土流失与森林生态环境控制管理对策

江西省水土流失集中分布于鄱阳湖水系的"五河"及其支流流域,流域水土流失的主要来源分别是坡耕地、工业生产建设废弃物,尤其以林业用地水土流失最为严重。森林资源年龄结构比例失调,林地逆转流失严重,森林利用与恢复方式单一,致使水土流失控制所需要的森林生态防护功能供给不足。为了遏止水土流失,必须调整人工林单一树种结构,重建防护功能较高的复合型森林生态系统,同时调整和改革现行不合理的森林经营管理模式,变革坡耕地土地利用方式,实施全流域坡耕地退耕还林生态恢复工程。     

Concentrations of exchangeable bases and cation exchange capacity in soils of cropland, grazing and forest in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia

Conversion of native forest ecosystem to cropland has considerably degraded the soil nutrient levels in the Bale Mountains, south-eastern highlands of Ethiopia. This study investigated the effects of land use change through conversion of native forest to cropland and/or grazing land on soil pH (H₂O), base cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺), CEC and percentage base saturation (PBS) in three adjacent land-use types: cropland, grazing land and native forest. A total of 108 soil samples (3 replications × 3 land-use types × 4 profiles × 3 soil depth layers, 0–0.2, 0.2–0.4 and 0.4–1.0 m) were collected for laboratory analyses. Results showed that soil pH, Na⁺ and K⁺, CEC, and PBS varied significantly with respect to land use and soil depth while Ca²⁺and Mg²⁺ varied with soil depth (ρ < 0.05). Conversion of native forest ecosystem to cropland during a 15-year period significantly increased soil pH and PBS while reducing Na⁺ and K⁺. The CEC in the cropland was reduced by 37.7% (2.6% per annum) compared to the native forest, which could be attributed to the decline in organic matter concentrations. If such rapid declines in soil nutrient concentrations continue unabated, the soils will reach at the point of no return within a few decades. Although the effect of grazing on most of the properties was found to be minimal, adapting the number of stock to the carrying capacity of the land and thereby enhancing the natural regeneration, combined with proper cropland management practices could help restoring soil nutrients for sustainable agricultural production and ecosystem functions.     

Long-term changes in the chemical properties of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) forest soils under high precipitation in southwest Japan

There is insufficient direct evidence of long-term changes in the chemical properties of forest soils to provide information for forestry management plans for sustainable site productivity. To understand changes in the chemical properties of forest soils in a specific high-precipitation climate in Japan, we re-investigated, in 1997, soil pits within a Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) forest in the Yanase region of Kochi Prefecture which had previously been surveyed in 1976. Comparison of the 1976 and 1997 results revealed significantly lower pH of surface and subsurface soils, and fewer exchangeable cations over time. In contrast, subsoil pH, concentrations of total carbon and nitrogen, and cation-exchange capacity (CEC) had not changed over the 21-year period. Estimation of proton and cation budgets in the forest ecosystem over 21 years, using data for the amounts in soil, biomass accumulation, and input through precipitation, revealed that biomass accumulation did not explain the cation depletion in soils. This suggests that cations were leached from the ecosystem. In contrast with previous reports, which showed Ca accumulation in Japanese cedar forest soils, our results indicated that high precipitation of more than 4,000 mm combined with acid deposition resulted in soil acidification and leaching of cations from soils, following the decrease in base saturation.     

Liming alters body size distribution in a community of epigeic spiders in birch forest (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Betula pendula</Emphasis> Roth)

Key message

Liming, an ameliorative method for acidified forest soils, affected the relative abundance of prey of ground-hunting spiders and consequently reduced densities of functionally similar species of these predators.

Context

Liming, an ameliorative method for acidified forest soils, may modify the structure of an arthropod community by altering the soil characteristics and/or the availability of food resources.

Aims

We investigated the effect of liming on the community structure of ground-hunting spiders in a birch forest.

Methods

We established six experimental birch stand plots. Each stand was exposed to one of three experimental treatments: control, 1.5 t/ha, or 3 t/ha of dolomitic limestone. We collected spiders using pitfall traps during 5 years. We characterized the community in terms of activity density, species richness, community-weighted mean body size, and functional diversity and evenness in body size. We further investigated the potential links through which the liming might affect spiders, namely soil characteristics, effect of liming on birch, and densities of potential prey.

Results

The commonly used dosage of 3 t/ha reduced densities of functionally similar species which led to the reduced functional evenness in body size and increased functional divergence in body size. Liming increased soil pH only slightly but decreased the densities of spiders’ preferred prey.

Conclusion

The liming affected the community of ground-hunting spiders, at least partially, through reduced densities of their preferred prey.

     

Effects of organic residue management and legume cover on growth of pine seedlings, nutrient leaching and soil properties

? The short-term effect of organic residue management on the growth and nutrition of Pinus pinaster Ait. seedlings, and on nutrient leaching and chemical properties of an acid soil was assessed through a lysimeter experiment. Treatments included absence, placement on the soil surface, and incorporation into the soil (with and without legume cover cropping) of organic residues (forest floor litter or forest floor litter plus harvest residues).

? Residues placed on the soil surface enhanced seedling growth. Organic residues reduced nutrient losses (NO ₃ ^? , Ca and Mg) and resulted in nutrient accumulation in the soil. Harvest residues positively affected K seedling nutrition status and enhanced K soil accumulation.

? Legume cover cropping reduced soil nutrient losses (N, Ca, Mg and K) during the early stage of seedling growth; it also improved seedling nutrition status (N and P), but without any effect on growth.

? Harvest residues plus forest floor litter placed on the soil surface was the most appropriate management to both reduce nutrient losses through leaching and increase height of seedlings at the end of the experimental period (two years).

     

Drainage,Liming and Fertilization of Organic Soils. I. Long-term Effects on Acid/Base Relations

Abstract

Long-term changes of the acid/base relations of organic soils after drainage, fertilization and/or liming at three experimental sites—two ombrogenous and one soligenous—in south central Norway are discussed. These sites were drained, fertilized and/or limed in 1953–1956 and sampled in 1991–1992. Drainage at the ombrogelious sites caused: insignificant shifts of pH, higher bulk densities to 40 cm depth, higher ash percentage, higher contents of N and P to 20 cm depth and reduced concentrations of total Ca, K, Mg, Na, A1 and Fe in soil layers deeper than 20 cm. The soligenous site was not effectively drained; despite this, pH dropped about 0.5 unit in the surface and subsurface soil layers of the control plots, while small changes were measured for most other soil variables. The suggested reason for the pH drop is limited sulphide oxidation in the upper 20 cm drained layer. Base saturation at actual soil pH, when all treatments were included, was estimated with good precision by four regressors: pH, extractable Al, extractable Fe and extractable Ca (R²=0.90–0.95). Similar models explained 97–99”” of the variation in base saturation at soil pH=7.0. The lime effects at the properly drained oligotrophic sites were proportional to applied doses; for pH to 40 cm, base saturation to 60 cm, and Ca concentration to 60 cm depth. At the less well-drained soligenous site, effects were limited to the upper 30 cm layer. Both drainage and liming caused higher cation exchange capacities and proper drainage seems to be a prerequisite for the liming effect. Estimated recovery of calcium to 60 cm depth was 64–79% at the ombrogenous sites and 42–46% at the soligenous site.     

Landowner-Driven Sustainable Forest Management and Value-Added Processing

Summary

The Massachusetts Woodlands Cooperative, LLC (MWC) is working to help members conduct sustainable forestry of the highest standards while increasing financial returns from harvest activities. The forests of Massachusetts, the third most densely populated state in the United States, are threatened. Decades of high grading and the threat of forest conversion to alternative use present challenges for maintaining a forested landscape. Despite being 60% forested, Massachusetts imports approximately 98% of the wood fiber that its citizens consume.

The Massachusetts Woodlands Cooperative is a forest management, processing, and marketing cooperative organized by and on behalf of forest landowners in western Massachusetts. An umbrella group certification protocol was developed to provide cost-effective forestland management certification. Members benefit from cooperative management of harvest operations, above-market stumpage payments, and value-added processing and production including marketing traditionally low-value and small-diameter material. The added revenue from developing these new markets is used to fund timber, wildlife habitat, recreation, and other sustainable forest management activities. The cooperative works in partnership with local wood-processing businesses to spur community economic development. This study on cooperatives may be a successful example of sustainable forest management that can be applied in other regions with private land ownerships.     

Tree encroachment into savannas alters soil microbiological and chemical properties facilitating forest expansion

Forests have been expanding over typical savanna sites for the past 3000 years in the Neotropics.Such invasion can produce a series of environmental modifications on typical savanna;however,it remains unclear how modifications in soil properties,caused by the encroachment of woody species,facilitate the expansion of forest ecosystems under dystrophic conditions.Here we examined chemical and microbiological changes associated with tree encroachment in oxisols of a Neotropical Savanna at Assis Ecological Station,Southeastern Brazil.We predicted that tree encroachment caused by typical forest species would cause significant changes in the chemical and microbiological properties of savanna soils.Soils were sampled at Assis Ecological Station,from savanna sites differing in tree encroachment(typical,dense and forested savanna) caused by decades of fire exclusion.We analysed vegetation leaf area index and leaf litter volume deposited in the studied plots and chemical(pH,organic matter,P,K,Ca,Mg,Al,NO_3~-,NH_4~+) and microbiological(microbial C biomass and dehydrogenase activity) properties of soils under distinct encroachment conditions.Most soil chemical properties did not change along the tree encroachment gradient;however,total P,soil organic matter,soil microbial C and dehydrogenase activity increased from typical savanna to forested savanna.The changes in soil organic matter and dehydrogenase activity were correlated with the values of leaf area index and litter volume along the encroachment gradient.Our results demonstrate that forest species can increase carbon and phosphorus supplies in tropical savanna soils.     

城市森林公园登山“野道”对森林景观的影响分析——以南京紫金山为例

随着城市化进程的加速和游客数量的急剧增加,登山旅游者自行开发的"野道"对城市森林公园森林景观的负面影响越来越大.以南京紫金山为例,探讨登山"野道"对植被覆盖率、植物种类、林下土壤影响的量化分析方法,在此基础上,提出了整体优先、生态优先、体验导向的登山道规划原则,并从景观功能分区、充分考虑连接度和环度、阻隔"野道"、加强"官道"管理等方面对登山道的设计和管理进行了探讨.     

Medicinal understory herbaceous species cultivated under different light and soil conditions in maple forests in southern Québec,Canada

Many northern hardwood understory plants have medicinal properties but their cost of production under conventional cultivation practices is fairly high. Therefore wild harvesting continues putting the natural populations at risk. Their cultivation in a forest farming system seems a promising alternative. This study was aimed at assessing the impact of canopy opening and soil fertility on growth and active component production of four medicinal plants: black cohosh (Actaea racemosa), wild ginger (Asarum canadense), blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) and bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis). Rhizome sections were planted in two sugar maple forests. Mortality and total leaf area were monitored during 3 years, while subplots were harvested at the end of the second year for biomass and active component analyses. Multiple regressions indicated that all species responded more to acidity related elements (pH, Al, Al + H, Fe, Zn) than to soil fertility (Ca, K, Mg, P, C/N, base saturation and cation exchange capacity). This suggests that adjusting the pH by liming could be appropriate. Growth increased with irradiance, except for blue cohosh, indicating that forest openings could also be part of an appropriate forest management plan for their cultivation. While active component concentrations of rhizomes and roots increased in conditions that negatively affected growth, such as low pH, soil fertility or light availability, their total active component content exhibited responses that were similar to those of the growth variables. Thus, it seems that soil and light conditions that favour the growth of these medicinal plants also favour their total yield in active components.     

Soil compaction due to heavy forest traffic: measurements and simulations using an analytical soil compaction model

? Context

Models for predictions of soil compaction following forest traffic represent important decision tools for forest managers in order to choose the best management practices for preserving soil physical quality. In agricultural soil compaction research, analytical models are widely used for this purpose.

? Aims

Our objective was to assess the ability of an analytical model to predict forest soil compaction under forwarder traffic.

? Methods

We used the results from two experimental sites set up in north-eastern France in 2007 and 2008 to compare simulations using the SoilFlex model with observed bulk density following forwarder traffic.

? Results

The best model-based predictions were found when considering the mean initial soil conditions and an increased rebound parameter in the upper soil layers (0–10 cm) in comparison to the deeper layers (10–50 cm). The need to increase the rebound parameter in the soil surface layer to improve model accuracy was attributed to a large soil organic matter content in the uppermost layers of forest soils. For the site where initial soil mechanical parameters were measured as a function of soil bulk density and water content, the model performance was good, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.06. The model performed poorer (RMSE of 0.11), especially for the surface soil layer, for the second site that was wetter at the time of traffic and where soil mechanical properties were not measured but estimated by means of pedo-transfer functions.

? Conclusions

SoilFlex was found to yield satisfactory predictions and could help forest managers estimate the risk of compaction and to select the most appropriate machinery for given soil conditions in order to preserve the soil from physical degradation during traffic in forest ecosystems. However, our results emphasise the need for research on soil mechanical properties of forest soils, in particular on the role of soil organic matter and roots on soil compressive properties.     

四川盆地西缘山地典型地段不同林分对土壤质量的影响

以四川盆地西缘山地典型地段的桦木林、柳杉林、杉木林、竹林和天然常绿阔叶为研究对象,从土壤剖面特征、土壤机械组成、酸碱性和土壤养分含量等方面对比分析了林地土壤质量。结果显示:牛尾竹林土壤各项指标处于较低水平,土壤质量很差;人工栽植的针叶林(柳杉林),其人工林土壤表现出很好的发育和熟化特征,其有机质含量和速效N、P、K总量也仅次于天然林,且团聚体数量较多,但水稳性能较差,表土的养分淋溶特征明显;而盐基交换量和盐基饱和度以桦木幼林最大,其次为天然常绿阔叶林、竹林、杉木林,最小为柳杉林。表明以木材为主要经营目标的人工针叶林(柳杉林和杉木林)加速了盐基离子的流失,最终导致了土壤的酸化,因此合理的植被构成及林分经营模式是维持土壤质量的关键技术。     

Effects of stand density on ecosystem properties of subalpine forests in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA

? Mixed coniferous, subalpine forest communities in the Rocky Mountains are historically dense and have experienced infrequent, high-severity fire. However, many of these high-elevation stands are thinned for a number of perceived benefits.

? We explored the effects of forest stand density on ecosystem properties in subalpine forests in Colorado, USA, 17–18 y after forests were managed for timber.

? Forest structure significantly altered the composition and chemical signature of plant communities. Previously managed stands contained lower density of overstory trees and higher ground cover compared to paired reference stands. Foliar phenolic concentration of several species was negatively related to basal area of overstory trees. Furthermore, reductions in stand density increased total foliar phenolic:nitrogen ratios in some species, suggesting that gap formation may drive long-term changes in litter quality. Despite significant changes in forest structure, reductions in stand density did not leave a strong legacy in surface soil properties, likely due to the integrity of soil organic matter reserves.

? Changes in forest structure associated with past management has left a long-term impact on plant communities but has only subtly altered soil nutrient cycling, possibly due to trade offs between litter decomposability and microclimate associated with reductions in canopy cover.

     

Effect of land-use conversion from forest to cocoa agroforest on soil characteristics and quality of a Ferric Lixisol in lowland humid Ghana

Soil fertility decline caused by deforestation, soil degradation and low input use has become a primary factor limiting sustainable utilization of soil resources in cocoa agroforestry systems on acid soils in lowland humid Ghana. Changes in and responses of soil physico-chemical properties and soil quality to land-use change was investigated along a chronosequence of farm fields on a Ferric Lixisol in the Ashanti region of Ghana. Soil bulk density increased significantly only in the top 0–10 cm soil layer. Concentrations and stocks of soil organic carbon (SOC) and total N decreased significantly in the top 0–10 and 10–20 cm soil depths. By 30 years after forest conversion, cocoa system had re-accumulated up to 38.8 Mg C ha^?1 or 85 % of initial forest carbon stock values. Total porosity (%) decreased significantly in shaded-cocoa fields in comparison with the natural semi-deciduous forest. An assessment of soil deterioration using degradation indices (DIs) revealed that total soil quality (0–20 cm) deteriorated significantly (DI = –60.6) in 3-year-old of cocoa system but improved in 15 and 30-year-old systems. Available P stocks declined consistently while soil exchangeable Ca, K and Mg stocks as well as cation exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation remained more or less stable with a tendency to improve. The inclusion of leguminous shade trees during early plantation development, development of mechanisms for the integration of cover crops and enhancement of farmer capability in improved farm management are required to maintain high C and nutrient base, minimize soil quality degradation during plantation development phase and sustain long-term productivity.     

Forest Landscape Development Scenarios (FoLDS)–A framework for integrating forest models,owners' behaviour and socio-economic developments

The FoLDS framework presented in this paper is set up to develop scenarios for forested landscapes with a transparent connection between the broad-scale developments in socio-economic factors and the ecosystem services provided. The forests that provide these ecosystem services are managed by a multitude of forest owners. Different forest owners have their own objectives and will thus adjust their forest management differently to socio-economic developments. The FoLDS framework breaks down the connection from socio-economic developments to the landscape level in three steps. In the first step, a structure is provided for deciding on scenarios combining the socio-economic factors that have most influence on forest owners. In the second step, the scenarios are translated to the distribution of forest management approaches in the landscape by invoking a behavioural matrix of forest owner types and forest management decisions. The third step involves the implementation of these forest management approaches in a forest modelling tool that is tailored to the specific landscape at hand. The results of these calculations are then translated to a set of indicators for the ecosystem services of interest. A survey among researchers experienced with the FoLDS framework indicates that there is an added value in systematically including both qualitative and quantitative scenario methods for forested landscapes.