Remote sensing of the magnetic moment of uranus: predictions for voyager

Power is supplied to a planet's magnetosphere from the kinetic energy of planetary spin and the energy flux of the impinging solar wind. A fraction of this power is available to drive numerous observable phenomena, such as polar auroras and planetary radio emissions. In this report our present understanding of these power transfer mechanisms is applied to Uranus to make specific predictions of the detectability of radio and auroral emissions by the planetary radio astronomy (PRA) and ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS) instruments aboard the Voyager spacecraft before its encounter with Uranus at the end of January 1986. The power available for these two phenomena is (among other factors) a function of the magnetic moment of Uranus. The date of earliest detectability also depends on whether the predominant power source for the magnetosphere is planetary spin or solar wind. The magnetic moment of Uranus is derived for each power source as a function of the date of first detection of radio emissions by the PRA instrument or auroral emissions by the UVS instrument. If we accept the interpretation of ultraviolet observations now available from the Earth-orbiting International Ultraviolet Explorer satellite, Uranus has a surface magnetic field of at least 0.6 gauss, and more probably several gauss, making it the largest or second-largest planetary magnetic field in the solar system.     

Planetary radio astronomy observations from voyager 1 near saturn

The Voyager 1 planetary radio astronomy experiment detected two distinct kinds of radio emissions from Saturn. The first, Saturn kilometric radiation, is strongly polarized, bursty, tightly correlated with Saturn's rotation, and exhibits complex dynamic spectral features somewhat reminiscent of those in Jupiter's radio emission. It appears in radio frequencies below about 1.2 megahertz. The second kind of radio emission, Saturn electrostatic discharge, is unpolarized, extremely impulsive, loosely correlated with Saturn's rotation, and very broadband, appearing throughout the observing range of the experiment (20.4 kilohertz to 40.2 megahertz). Its sources appear to lie in the planetary rings.     

Earth as an intense planetary radio source: similarities to jupiter and saturn

Observations from spacecraft have revealed naturally occurring radio emission emanating from two regions near Earth. The characteristics of these two sources suggest a correlation with areas of known electron precipitation. The possibility of a similar production mechanism for observed nonthermal radio emissions from other planetary magnetospheres permits the polar magnetic field strengths of Jupiter and Saturn to be predicted.     

Neptune's Wind Speeds Obtained by Tracking Clouds in Voyager Images

Images of Neptune obtained by the narrow-angle camera of the Voyager 2 spacecraft reveal large-scale cloud features that persist for several months or longer. The features' periods of rotation about the planetary axis range from 15.8 to 18.4 hours. The atmosphere equatorward of -53 degrees rotates with periods longer than the 16.05-hour period deduced from Voyager's planetary radio astronomy experiment (presumably the planet's internal rotation period). The wind speeds computed with respect to this radio period range from 20 meters per second eastward to 325 meters per second westward. Thus, the cloud-top wind speeds are roughly the same for all the planets ranging from Venus to Neptune, even though the solar energy inputs to the atmospheres vary by a factor of 1000.     

Voyager 2 radio observations of uranus

Within distances to Uranus of about 6 x 10(6) kilometers (inbound) and 35 x 10(6) kilometers (outbound), the planetary radio astronomy experiment aboard Voyager 2 detected a wide variety of radio emissions. The emission was modulated in a period of 17.24 +/- 0.01 hours, which is identified as the rotation period of Uranus' magnetic field. Of the two poles where the axis of the off-center magnetic dipole (measured by the magnetometer experiment aboard Voyager 2) meets the planetary surface, the one closer to dipole center is now located on the nightside of the planet. The radio emission generally had maximum power and bandwidth when this pole was tipped toward the spacecraft. When the spacecraft entered the nightside hemisphere, which contains the stronger surface magnetic pole, the bandwidth increased dramatically and thereafter remained large. Dynamically evolving radio events of various kinds embedded in these emissions suggest a Uranian magnetosphere rich in magnetohydrodynamic phenomena.     

Voyager 1 planetary radio astronomy observations near jupiter

We report results from the first low-frequency radio receiver to be transported into the Jupiter magnetosphere. We obtained dramatic new information, both because Voyager was near or in Jupiter's radio emission sources and also because it was outside the relatively dense solar wind plasma of the inner solar system. Extensive radio spectral arcs, from above 30 to about 1 megahertz, occurred in patterns correlated with planetary longitude. A newly discovered kilometric wavelength radio source may relate to the plasma torus near Io's orbit. In situ wave resonances near closest approach define an electron density profile along the Voyager trajectory and form the basis for a map of the torus. Detailed studies are in progress and are out-lined briefly.     

Astronomical applications of differential interferometry

Intercomparison of radio signals received simultaneously at several sites from several sources with small mutual angular separation provides a powerful astrometric tool. Applications include tracking the Lunar Rover relative to the Lunar Module, determining the moon's libration, measuring winds in Venus's lower atmosphere, mapping Mars radiometrically, and locating the planetary system in an inertial frame.     

Mercury: observations of the 3.4-millimeter radio emission

Observations of the 3.4-millimeter radio emission from Mercury during 1965 and 1966 yielded the following relationship between average brightness temperature T(B) of the disk and the planetocentric phase angle i: T(B) = 277 (+/- 12) + 97 (+/- 17) cos [i + 29 deg (+/- 10 deg)] degrees K The errors are statistical standard; the phase shift corresponds to a phase lag-that is, the maximum and minimum of insolation lag the maximum and minimum of planetary radiation.     

Radio Reflection by Free Radicals in Earth's Atmosphere

Reflections of megacycle-per-second radio signals by free radicals in Earth's ionosphere are observed having about the intensity predicted for induced magnetic-dipole transitions. It seems that magnetic atoms, ions, and molecules in planetary atmospheres may be detected by this method. These cbservations were made with the topside ionosonder of the Canadian satellite Alouette II.     

Venus: new microwave measurements show no atmospheric water vapor

Two sets of passive radio observations of Venus-measurements of the spectrum of the disk temperature near the 1-centimeter wavelength, and interferometric measurements of the planetary limb darkening at the 1.35-centimeter water vapor resonance-show no evidence of water vapor in the lower atmosphere of Venus. The upper limit of 2 x 10(-3) for the mixing ratio of water vapor is substantially less than the amounts derived from the Venera space probes (0.5 x 10(-2) to 2.5 x 10(-2)). This amount of water vapor cannot produce dense clouds, and it is doubtful that it may contribute significantly to a greenhouse effect.     

Magnetic field studies by voyager 2: preliminary results at saturn

Further studies of the Saturnian magnetosphere and planetary magnetic field by Voyager 2 have substantiated the earlier results derived from Voyager 1 observations in 1980. The magnetic field is primarily that of a centered dipole (moment = 0.21 gauss-RS(3); where one Saturn radius, RS, is 60,330 kilometers) tilted approximately 0.8 degrees from the rotation axis. Near closest approach to Saturn, Voyager 2 traversed a kronographic longitude and latitude range that was complementary to that of Voyager 1. Somewhat surprisingly, no evidence was found in the data or the analysis for any large-scale magnetic anomaly in the northern hemisphere which could be associated with the periodic modulation of Saturnian kilometric radiation radio emissions. Voyager 2 crossed the magnetopause of a relatively compressed Saturnian magnetosphere at 18.5 RS while inbound near the noon meridian. Outbound, near the dawn meridian, the magnetosphere had expanded considerably and the magnetopause boundary was not observed until the spacecraft reached 48.4 to 50.9 RS and possibly beyond. Throughout the outbound magnetosphere passage, a period of 46 hours (4.5 Saturn rotations), the field was relatively steady and smooth showing no evidence for any azimuthal asymmetry or magnetic anomaly in the planetary field. We are thus left with a rather enigmatic situation to understand the basic source of Saturnian kilometric radiation modulation, other than the small dipole tilt.     

Research and Design of Hydro-mechanical Continuously Variable Transmission for Tractors

The working condition of tractors is bad, and the outside load fluctuation is frequent. All that require engine or transmission to change revolution speed and torque timely to accommodate the variation of load and motion resistance, and ensure the dynamic…     

Solar rotation effects on the thermospheres of Mars and Earth

The responses of Earth's and Mars' thermospheres to the quasi-periodic (27-day) variation of solar flux due to solar rotation were measured contemporaneously, revealing that this response is twice as large for Earth as for Mars. Per typical 20-unit change in 10.7-centimeter radio flux (used as a proxy for extreme ultraviolet flux) reaching each planet, we found temperature changes of 42.0 +/- 8.0 kelvin and 19.2 +/- 3.6 kelvin for Earth and Mars, respectively. Existing data for Venus indicate values of 3.6 +/- 0.6 kelvin. Our observational result constrains comparative planetary thermosphere simulations and may help resolve existing uncertainties in thermal balance processes, particularly CO2 cooling.     

Confirmation of Earth-Mass Planets Orbiting the Millisecond Pulsar PSR B1257 + 12

The discovery of two Earth-mass planets orbiting an old ( approximately 10(9) years), rapidly spinning neutron star, the 6.2-millisecond radio pulsar PSR B1257+12, was announced in early 1992. It was soon pointed out that the approximately 3:2 ratio of the planets' orbital periods should lead to accurately predictable and possibly measurable gravitational perturbations of their orbits. The unambiguous detection of this effect, after 3 years of systematic timing observations of PSR B1257+12 with the 305-meter Arecibo radiotelescope, as well as the discovery of another, moon-mass object in orbit around the pulsar, constitutes irrefutable evidence that the first planetary system around a star other than the sun has been identified.     

Pioneer 11 observations of energetic particles in the jovian magnetosphere

Knowledge of the positional distributions, absolute intensities, energy spectra, and angular distributions of energetic electrons and protons in the Jovian magnetosphere has been considerably advanced by the planetary flyby of Pioneer 11 in November-December 1974 along a quite different trajectory from that of Pioneer 10 a year earlier. (i) The previously reported magnetodisc is shown to be blunted and much more extended in latitude on the sunward side than on the dawn side. (ii) Rigid corotation of the population of protons E(p) approximately 1 million electron volts in the magnetodisc is confirmed. (iii) Angular distributions of energetic electrons E(e) > 21 million electron volts in the inner magnetosphere are shown to be compatible with the Kennel-Petschek whistler-mode instability. (iv) A diverse body of magnetospheric effects by the Jovian satellites is found. (v) Observations of energetic electrons in to a radial distance of 1.59 Jovian radii provide a fresh basis for the interpretation of decimetric radio noise emission.     

Voyager 2 radio science observations of the uranian system: atmosphere, rings, and satellites

Voyager 2 radio occultation measurements of the Uranian atmosphere were obtained between 2 and 7 degrees south latitude. Initial atmospheric temperature profiles extend from pressures of 10 to 900 millibars over a height range of about 100 kilometers. Comparison of radio and infrared results yields mole fractions near the tropopause of 0.85 and 0.15 +/- 0.05 for molecular hydrogen and helium, respectively, if no other components are present; for this composition the tropopause is at about 52 kelvins and 110 millibars. Distinctive features in the signal intensity measurements for pressures above 900 millibars strongly favor model atmospheres that include a cloud deck of methane ice. Modeling of the intensity measurements for the cloud region and below indicates that the cloud base is near 1,300 millibars and 81 kelvins and yields an initial methane mole fraction of about 0.02 for the deep atmosphere. Scintillations in signal intensity indicate small-scale stucture throughout the stratosphere and upper troposphere. As judged from data obtained during occultation ingress, the ionosphere consists of a multilayer structure that includes two distinct layers at 2,000 and 3,500 kilometers above the 100-millibar level and an extended topside that may reach altitudes of 10,000 kilometers or more. Occultation measurements of the nine previously known rings at wavelengths of 3.6 and 13 centimeters show characteristic values of optical depth between about 0.8 and 8; the maxim value occurs in the outer region of the in ring, near its periapsis. Forward-scattered signals from this ring have properties that differ from those of any of Saturn's rings, and they are inconsistent with a discrete scattering object or local (three-dimensional) assemblies of orbiting objects. These signals suggest a new kdnd of planetary ring feature characterized by highly ordered cylindrical substructures of radial scale on the order of meters and azimuthal scale of kilometers or more. From radio data alone the mass of the Uranian system is GM(sys) = 5,794,547- 60 cubic kilometers per square second; from a combination of radio and optical navigation data the mass of Uranus alone is GM(u) = 5,793,939+/- 60 cubic kilometers per square second. From all available Voyager data, induding imaging radii, the mean uncompressed density of the five major satellites is 1.40+/- 0.07 grams per cubic centimeter; this value is consistent with a solar mix of material and apparently rules out a cometary origin of the satellites.     

Plasma motions in planetary magnetospheres

Before direct exploration by spacecraft, Jupiter was the only planet other than Earth that was known to have a magnetic field, as revealed by its nonthermal radio emissions. The term "magnetosphere" did not exist because there was no clear concept of such an entity. The space age provided the opportunity to explore Earth's neighborhood in space and to send instruments to seven of the other eight planets. It was found that interplanetary space is pervaded by a supersonic "solar wind" plasma and that six planets, including Earth, have magnetic fields of sufficient strength to deflect this solar wind and form a comet-shaped cavity called a magnetosphere. Comparative study of these magnetospheres aims to elucidate both the general principles and characteristics that they share in common, and the specific environmental factors that cause the important, and sometimes dramatic, differences in behavior between any two of them. A general understanding of planetary magnetospheres holds the promise of wide applicability in astrophysics, which, for the indefinite future, must rely solely on remote sensing for experimental data.     

Venus: ionosphere and atmosphere as measured by dual-frequency radio occultation of mariner v

Venus has daytime and nighttime ionospheres at the positions probed by radio occulation. The main layers are thin by terrestrial standards, with the nighttime peak concentration of electrons being about two orders of magnitude below that of the daytime peak. Above the nighttime peak were several scale-height regimes extending to a radius of at least 7500, and probably to 9700, kilometers from the center of Venus. Helium and hydrogen at plasma temperatures of 600 degrees to 1100 degrees K seem indicated in the regimes from 6300 to 7500 kilometers, with cooler molecular ions in lower regions. Above the daytime peak a sharp plasmapause was discovered, marking a sudden transition from appreciable ionization concentrations near Venus to the tenuous conditions of the solar wind. This may be indicative of a kind of interaction of the magnetized solar wind with a planetary body that differs from the two different kinds of interaction characterized by Earth and by Moon. For Venus and probably for Mars, the magnetic field of the solar wind may pile up in front of the conducting ionosphere, form an induced magnetosphere that ends at the plasmapause, above which any ionosphere that tends to form is swept away by the shocked solar wind that flows between the stand-off bow-shock and the magnetopause. The neutral atmosphere was also probed and a surface reflection may have been detected, but the data have not yet been studied in detail. Results are consistent with a super-refractive atmosphere, as expected from Soviet measurements near the surface. Thus, two unusual features of Venus can be described in terms of a light trap in the lower atmosphere, and a magnetic trap in the conducting ionosphere.     

A gaseous metal disk around a white dwarf

The destiny of planetary systems through the late evolution of their host stars is very uncertain. We report a metal-rich gas disk around a moderately hot and young white dwarf. A dynamical model of the double-peaked emission lines constrains the outer disk radius to just 1.2 solar radii. The likely origin of the disk is a tidally disrupted asteroid, which has been destabilized from its initial orbit at a distance of more than 1000 solar radii by the interaction with a relatively massive planetesimal object or a planet. The white dwarf mass of 0.77 solar mass implies that planetary systems may form around high-mass stars.     

Thermodynamic equilibrium and the inorganic origin of organic compounds

Theoretical and experimental support is presented for the hypothesis that many organic compounds may form under conditions of thermodynamic equilibrium. This possibility must be considered along with special effects of selective catalysts, radiation, and degradation from biological matter, in explaining the origin of organic compounds in carbonaceous chondrites. Similar considerations may apply to solar nebulas and planetary atmospheres. The equilibrium distribution of organic compounds at temperatures between 300 degrees K and 1000 degrees K and pressures of 10-(6) to 50 atm for the C-H-O system have been computed. At moderate temperatures and low pressures, conditions where graphite production is inhibited, aromatic compounds may form even in the presence of large excesses of hydrogen. Such conditions exist in the solar nebula and in the atmospheres of some of the major planets. Equilibrium concentrations of a large number of compounds at 1000 degrees K with nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine added to the system have also been determined. In some cases, a limited equilibrium method is employed in which those few compounds which form with the most difficulty are excluded from the computations, while representatives of all other families of compounds are included. This approach is shown to be useful in the interpretation of certain experimental data in which complete equilibrium has not been attained. We have also found that gases, activated to the plasma state by a high-energy radio frequency field, recombine on cooling to yield product mixtures which are in qualitative agreement with those predicted by the equilibrium computations. We believe that such products can be profitably studied as if at a metastable limited equilibrium.