Effects of thinning on soil and tree water relations, transpiration and growth in an oak forest (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.)

To quantify the effects of crown thinning on the water balance and growth of the stand and to analyze the ecophysiological modifications induced by canopy opening on individual tree water relations, we conducted a thinning experiment in a 43-year-old Quercus petraea stand by removing trees from the upper canopy level. Soil water content, rainfall interception, sap flow, leaf water potential and stomatal conductance were monitored for two seasons following thinning. Seasonal time courses of leaf area index (LAI) and girth increment were also measured. Predawn leaf water potential was significantly higher in trees in the thinned stand than in the closed stand, as a consequence of higher relative extractable water in the soil. The improvement in water availability in the thinned stand resulted from decreases in both interception and transpiration. From Year 1 to Year 2, an increase in transpiration was observed in the thinned stand without any modification in LAI, whereas changes in transpiration in the closed stand were accompanied by variations in LAI. The different behaviors of the closed and open canopies were interpreted in terms of coupling to the atmosphere. Thinning increased inter-tree variability in sap flow density, which was closely related to a leaf area competition index. Stomatal conductance varied little inside the crown and differences in stomatal conductance between the treatments appeared only during a water shortage and affected mainly the closed stand. Thinning enhanced tree growth as a result of a longer growing period due to the absence of summer drought and higher rates of growth. Suppressed and dominant trees benefited more from thinning than trees in the codominant classes.     

Transpiration by two poplar varieties grown as coppice for biomass production

Fast-growing tree clones selected for biomass plantations are highly productive and therefore likely to use more water than the agricultural crops they replace. We report field measurements of transpiration through the summer of 1994 from two poplar clones, Beaupré (Populus trichocarpa Torr. & A. Gray x P. deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.) and Dorschkamp (P. deltoides x P. nigra L.), grown as unirrigated short-rotation coppice in southern England. Stand transpiration was quantified by scaling up from sap flow measurements made with the heat balance method in a sample of stems. Leaf conductances, leaf area development, meteorological variables and soil water deficit were also measured to investigate the response of the trees to the environment. High rates of transpiration were found for Beaupré. In June, when soil water was plentiful, the mean (+/- SD) transpiration rate over an 18-day period was 5.0 +/- 1.8 mm day(-1), reaching a maximum of 7.9 mm day(-1). Transpiration rates from Dorschkamp were lower, as a result of its lower leaf area index. High total leaf conductances were measured for both Beaupré (0.34 +/- 0.17 mol m(-2) s(-1)) and Dorschkamp (0.39 +/- 0.16 mol m(-2) s(-1)). Leaf conductance declined slightly with increasing atmospheric vapor pressure deficit in both clones, but only in Beaupré did leaf conductance decrease as soil water deficit increased.     

Sap-flux-scaled transpiration responses to light,vapor pressure deficit,and leaf area reduction in a flooded Taxodium distichum forest

We used 20-mm-long, Granier-type sensors to quantify the effects of tree size, azimuth and radial position in the xylem on the spatial variability in xylem sap flux in 64-year-old trees of Taxodium distichum L. Rich. growing in a flooded forest. This information was used to scale flux to the stand level to investigate variations in half-hourly and daily (24-hour) sums of sap flow, transpiration per unit of leaf area, and stand transpiration in relation to vapor pressure deficit (D) and photosynthetically active radiation (Q(o)). Measurements of xylem sap flux density (J(s)) indicated that: (1) J(s) in small diameter trees was 0.70 of that in medium and large diameter trees, but the relationship between stem diameter as a continuous variable and J(s) was not significant; (2) J(s) at 20-40 mm depth in the xylem was 0.40 of that at 0-20 mm depth; and (3) J(s) on the north side of trees was 0.64 of that in directions 120 degrees from the north. Daily transpiration was linearly related to daily daytime mean D, and reached a modest value of 1.3 mm day(-1), reflecting the low leaf area index (LAI = 2.2) of the stand. Because there was no soil water limitation, half-hourly water uptake was nearly linearly related to D at D < 0.6 kPa during both night and day, increasing to saturation during daytime at higher values of D. The positive effect of Q(o) on J(s) was significant, but relatively minor. Thus, a second-order polynomial with D explained 94% of the variation in J(s) and transpiration. An approximately 40% reduction in LAI by a hurricane resulted in decreases of about 18% in J(s) and stand transpiration, indicating partial stomatal compensation.     

Transpiration and water relations of poplar trees growing close to the water table

Sap flow was measured on five branches of two poplar (Populus trichocarpa Torr. & A. Gray x P. tacamahaca L.) trees from June to September 1994 in the south of England with stem-surface, heat balance gauges, and was scaled up to estimate transpiration from single trees on the basis of leaf area. On six days, stomatal conductance and plant water potential were measured simultaneously with a porometer and pressure chamber, respectively. The effects of solar radiation (S), vapor pressure deficit (D) and stomatal conductance on transpiration were evaluated. Sap flow per unit leaf area (F(a)) was closely related to the time course of demand attributable to S and D throughout the season, and only slightly affected by the water content of the top 120 cm of soil. Although F(a) increased linearly at low values of D, it showed a plateau with increases in D above 1.2 kPa. The canopy coupling coefficient (1 - Omega) ranged from 0.48 to 0.78 with a mean of 0.65 +/- 0.01, indicating that transpiration was controlled more by stomatal conductance than by incident radiation. The seasonal pattern of tree water loss followed potential evaporation with a peak in late June or early July. On bright days, daily transpiration over the projected crown area was 3.6 mm early in the season, 3.8 mm in mid-season, and 2.7 mm late in the season. The water balance of the system indicated that poplar trees took 15-60% of water transpired from groundwater, with the proportion increasing as the soil in the unsaturated zone dried out. Access to the water table resulted in high predawn water potentials throughout the season. Estimated hydraulic resistance to water flow in the soil-tree system was in the range of 1.5 to 1.93 x 10(6) MPa s m(-3).     

Influence of irrigation and fertilization on transpiration and hydraulic properties of Populus deltoides

Long-term hydraulic acclimation to resource availability was explored in 3-year-old Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. clones by examining transpiration, leaf-specific hydraulic conductance (G(L)), canopy stomatal conductance (G(S)) and leaf to sapwood area ratio (A(L):A(S)) in response to irrigation (13 and 551 mm year(-1) in addition to ambient precipitation) and fertilization (0 and 120 kg N ha(-1) year(-1)). Sap flow was measured continuously over one growing season with thermal dissipation probes. Fertilization had a greater effect on growth and hydraulic properties than irrigation, and fertilization effects were independent of irrigation treatment. Transpiration on a ground area basis (E) ranged between 0.3 and 1.8 mm day(-1), and increased 66% and 90% in response to irrigation and fertilization, respectively. Increases in G(L), G(S) at a reference vapor pressure deficit of 1 kPa, and transpiration per unit leaf area in response to increases in resource availability were associated with reductions in A(L):A(S) and consequently a minimal change in the water potential gradient from soil to leaf. Irrigation and fertilization increased leaf area index similarly, from an average 1.16 in control stands to 1.45, but sapwood area was increased from 4.0 to 6.3 m(2) ha(-1) by irrigation and from 3.7 to 6.7 m(2) ha(-1) by fertilization. The balance between leaf area and sapwood area was important in understanding long-term hydraulic acclimation to resource availability and mechanisms controlling maximum productivity in Populus deltoides.     

Parent tree effects on reestablishment of Acacia koa in abandoned pasture and the influence of initial density on stand development

Increasingly private landholders in Hawaii are considering native forest restoration for their lands, and some public agencies have already started such work. Initial efforts have focused on reestablishing Acacia koa to recover alien-grass-dominated sites. This study was done in Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, Island of Hawaii, to determine the efficacy of disk plowing to stimulate natural regeneration of koa from buried seeds. Sites with four different koa parent tree configurations were treated–single live overhead koa canopy, multiple live canopies, downed snags, and no parent koa tree. Tree growth and survival were assessed periodically over 21 years. Average initial stand densities ranged from 100 to 1,500 trees ha^?1 of scarified land, although some open areas had as few as 20 trees ha^?1. The distributions of seedlings with increasing distance from plot center were variable within and between parent tree configurations. Initial seedling density was significantly greater for the multiple-live-parent than for the no-parent configuration. Densities for the single-live and dead configurations differed from the no-parent configuration only when densities were based on the entire scarified area of each plot. Stand densities declined 10–67 % during the next 20 years. Survival was a negative, non-linear function of initial stand density. Initial stand density exerted strong control over stem diameter and crown size at age 21-years, but had little effect on the proportion of trees with single-stems. The relationships between stand basal area and density at 21 years conformed to the existing koa stocking guidelines. While moderate to high densities of natural regeneration can be expected from scarifying around live and dead koa trees, single trees or low density stands are likely in open areas.     

Transpiration and forest structure in relation to soil waterlogging in a Hawaiian montane cloud forest

Transpiration, leaf characteristics and forest structure in Metrosideros polymorpha Gaud. stands growing in East Maui, Hawaii were investigated to assess physiological limitations associated with flooding as a mechanism of reduced canopy leaf area in waterlogged sites. Whole-tree sap flow, stomatal conductance, microclimate, soil oxidation-reduction potential, stand basal area and leaf area index (LAI) were measured on moderately sloped, drained sites with closed canopies (90%) and on level, waterlogged sites with open canopies (50-60%). The LAI was measured with a new technique based on enlarged photographs of individual tree crowns and allometric relationships. Sap flow was scaled to the stand level by multiplying basal area-normalized sap flow by stand basal area. Level sites had lower soil redox potentials, lower mean stand basal area, lower LAI, and a higher degree of soil avoidance by roots than sloped sites. Foliar nutrients and leaf mass per area (LMA) in M. polymorpha were similar between level and sloped sites. Stomatal conductance was similar for M. polymorpha saplings on both sites, but decreased with increasing tree height (r(2) = 0.72; P < 0.001). Stand transpiration estimates ranged from 79 to 89% of potential evapotranspiration (PET) for sloped sites and from 28 to 51% of PET for level sites. Stand transpiration estimates were strongly correlated with LAI (r(2) = 0.96; P < 0.001). Whole-tree transpiration was lower at level sites with waterlogged soils, but was similar or higher for trees on level sites when normalized by leaf area. Trees on level sites had a smaller leaf area per stem diameter than trees on sloped sites, suggesting that soil oxygen deficiency may reduce leaf area. However, transpiration per unit leaf area did not vary substantially, so leaf-level physiological behavior was conserved, regardless of differences in tree leaf area.     

2种移栽方式对银杏根系、枝叶生长与水分状况的影响

测定移植后栽培于控根容器和种植穴中银杏新生根系和枝叶的生长状况、管胞和纹孔的显微结构以及茎流速率、枝条栓塞脆弱性、叶片蒸腾速率、气孔导度等水分生理指标,探讨不同栽培方式对银杏生长恢复和水分状况的影响.结果表明:在同样生长范围的新生根系生物量中,容器银杏的小根数量最多,而穴植银杏的粗根所占的比例最大,容器银杏细根和小根的根长密度约为穴植银杏6.12倍.容器银杏枝条长度、粗度和叶面积分别比穴植银杏增加约51.2%、34.6%和33.0%,差异显著;管胞形状比穴植银杏明显变宽变短,纹孔形状由椭圆形变为近似圆形.容器银杏白天的茎流速率较大,昼夜变化规律明显,枝条栓塞脆弱性降低,叶片气孔导度、蒸腾速率和叶片水势较高,在0.05水平上存在显著差异.此外,容器银杏再次移植时能保证根系完整,是比较理想的银杏大规格苗木栽培方式.     

Relationships between stem diameter, sapwood area, leaf area and transpiration in a young mountain ash forest

We examined relationships between stem diameter, sapwood area, leaf area and transpiration in a 15-year-old mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell.) forest containing silver wattle (Acacia dealbata Link.) as a suppressed overstory species and mountain hickory (Acacia frigescens J.H. Willis) as an understory species. Stem diameter explained 93% of the variation in leaf area, 96% of the variation in sapwood area and 88% of the variation in mean daily spring transpiration in 19 mountain ash trees. In seven silver wattle trees, stem diameter explained 87% of the variation in sapwood area but was a poor predictor of the other variables. When transpiration measurements from individual trees were scaled up to a plot basis, using stem diameter values for 164 mountain ash trees and 124 silver wattle trees, mean daily spring transpiration rates of the two species were 2.3 and 0.6 mm day(-1), respectively. The leaf area index of the plot was estimated directly by destructive sampling, and indirectly with an LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer and by hemispherical canopy photography. All three methods gave similar results.     

Acclimation of whole-plant Acacia farnesiana transpiration to carbon dioxide concentration

Transpiration per unit leaf area of Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. plants grown at a CO2 concentration ([CO2]) of 385 micromol x mol(-1) was about twice that of plants grown at 980 micromol x mol(-1). However, whes plants grown for more than a year at 980 micromol x mol(-1) were exposed to 380 micromol x mol(-1) for 9 days, they transpired at half the rate of those that had been grown at 380 micromol x mol(-1)1. Similarly, plants grown at 380 micromol x mol(-1), when exposed to 980 micromol x mol(-1), transpired at twice the rate of those grown at 980 micromol x mol(-1). Thus, the effects of elevated [CO2] on whole-plant transpiration, like those on photosynthesis, respiration and stomatal conductance, cannot reliably be extrapolated from measurements made during short-term exposure to elevated [CO2].     

Leaf conductance and CO(2) assimilation of Larix gmelinii growing in an eastern Siberian boreal forest

In July 1993, we measured leaf conductance, carbon dioxide (CO(2)) assimilation, and transpiration in a Larix gmelinii (Rupr.) Rupr. ex Kuzen forest in eastern Siberia. At the CO(2) concentration of ambient air, maximum values (mean of 10 highest measured values) for CO(2) assimilation, transpiration and leaf conductance for water vapor were 10.1 micro mol m(-2) s(-1), 3.9 mmol m(-2) s(-1) and 365 mmol m(-2) s(-1), respectively. The corresponding mean values, which were much lower than the maximum values, were 2.7 micro mol m(-2) s(-1), 1.0 mmol m(-2) s(-1) and 56 mmol m(-2) s(-1). The mean values were similar to those of Vaccinium species in the herb layer. The large differences between maximum and actual performance were the result of structural and physiological variations within the tree crowns and between trees that reduced maximum assimilation and leaf conductance by about 40 and 60%, respectively. Thus, maximum assimilation and conductance values averaged over the canopy were 6.1 micro mol m(-2) s(-1) and 146 mmol m(-2) s(-1), respectively. Dry air caused stomatal closure, which reduced assimilation by an additional 26%. Low irradiances in the morning and evening had a minor effect (-6%). Daily canopy transpiration was estimated to be 1.45 mm day(-1), which is higher than the value of 0.94 mm day(-1) measured by eddy covariance, but similar to the value of 1.45 mm day(-1) calculated from the energy balance and soil evaporation, and less than the value of 2.1 mm day(-1) measured by xylem flux. Daytime canopy carbon assimilation, expressed on a ground area basis, was 0.217 mol m(-2) day(-1), which is higher than the value measured by eddy flux (0.162 mol m(-2) day(-1) including soil respiration). We discuss the regulation of leaf gas exchange in Larix under the extreme climatic conditions of eastern Siberia (temperature > 35 degrees C and vapor pressure deficit > 5.0 kPa).     

Use of temporal patterns in vapor pressure deficit to explain spatial autocorrelation dynamics in tree transpiration

To quantify the relationship between temporal and spatial variation in tree transpiration, we measured sap flow in 129 trees with constant-heat sap flow sensors in a subalpine forest in southern Wyoming, USA. The forest stand was located along a soil water gradient from a stream side to near the top of a ridge. The stand was dominated by Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. with Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm and Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. present near the stream and scattered individuals of Populus tremuloides Michx. throughout the stand. We used a cyclic sampling design that maximized spatial information with a minimum number of samples for semivariogram analyses. All species exhibited previously established responses to environmental variables in which the dominant driver was a saturating response to vapor pressure deficit (D). This response to D is predictable from tree hydraulic theory in which stomatal conductance declines as D increases to prevent excessive cavitation. The degree to which stomatal conductance declines with D is dependent on both species and individual tree physiology and increases the variability in transpiration as D increases. We quantified this variability spatially by calculating the spatial autocorrelation within 0.2-kPa D bins. Across 11 bins of D, spatial autocorrelation in individual tree transpiration was inversely correlated to D and dropped from 45 to 20 m. Spatial autocorrelation was much less for transpiration per unit leaf area and not significant for transpiration per unit sapwood area suggesting that spatial autocorrelation within a particular D bin could be explained by tree size. Future research should focus on the mechanisms underlying tree size spatial variability, and the potentially broad applicability of the inverse relationship between D and spatial autocorrelation in tree transpiration.     

Age-related changes in ecosystem structure and function and effects on water and carbon exchange in ponderosa pine

As forests age, their structure and productivity change, yet in some cases, annual rates of water loss remain unchanged. To identify mechanisms that might explain such observations, and to determine if widely different age classes of forests differ functionally, we examined young (Y, approximately 25 years), mature (M, approximately 90 years) and old (O, approximately 250 years) ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex P. Laws.) stands growing in a drought-prone region of central Oregon. Although the stands differed in tree leaf area index (LAIT) (Y = 0.9, M = 2.8, O = 2.1), cumulative tree transpiration measured by sap flow did not differ substantially during the growing season (100-112 mm). Yet when water was readily available, transpiration per unit leaf area of the youngest trees was about three times that of M trees and five times that of O trees. These patterns resulted from a nearly sixfold difference in leaf specific conductance (KL) between the youngest and oldest trees. At the time of maximum transpiration in the Y stand in May-June, gross carbon uptake (gross ecosystem production, GEP) was similar for Y and O stands despite an almost twofold difference in stand leaf area index (LAIS). However, the higher rate of water use by Y trees was not sustainable in the drought-prone environment, and between spring and late summer, KL of Y trees declined fivefold compared with a nearly twofold decline for M trees and a < 30% reduction in O trees. Because the Y stand contained a significant shrub understory and more exposed soil, there was no appreciable difference in mean daily latent energy fluxes between the Y stand and the older stands as measured by the eddy-covariance technique. These patterns resulted in 60 to 85% higher seasonal GEP and 55 to 65% higher water-use efficiency at the M and O stands compared with the Y stand.     

Forest transpiration—targeted through xylem sap flux assessment versus hydrological modeling

The assessment of forest transpiration rates is crucial for determining plant-available soil water consumption and drought risk of trees. Xylem sap flux measurements have been used increasingly to quantify stand transpiration in forest ecosystems. Here, we compare this empirical approach with hydrological modeling on the basis of a stand transpiration dataset of adult beech (Fagus sylvatica), which was acquired across Bavaria, Germany, at eight forest sites. Xylem sap flux sensors were installed in five dominant trees each. Two tree to stand upscaling approaches, related to site-specific (1) sapwood area or (2) to leaf area index, were compared. The outcome was examined each in relation to process-based stand hydrological modeling, using LWF-BROOK90. Distinct relationships between tree diameter at breast height (1.30 m) and sapwood area-weighted sap flux along the radial profile became apparent across the study sites, confirming a generic allometric basis for stand-level upscaling of transpiration. The two upscaling approaches did not differ in outcome, representatively covering stand structure for comparison with modeling. Differential analysis yielded high agreement between the empirical and modeling approaches throughout most of the study period, although LWF-BROOK90 tended to overestimate sap flux measurements under low soil moisture. The two empirical approaches proved reliable for even-aged beech stands, as performance under high stand-structural heterogeneity awaits clarification. Findings advance stand-level hydrological modeling regarding coverage of stomatal behavior during temporary limitation in water availability.     

Regulation of transpirational water loss in Quercus suber trees in a Mediterranean-type ecosystem

Sap flux density in branches, leaf transpiration, stomatal conductance and leaf water potentials were measured in 16-year-old Quercus suber L. trees growing in a plantation in southern Portugal to understand how evergreen Mediterranean trees regulate water loss during summer drought. Leaf specific hydraulic conductance and leaf gas exchange were monitored during the progressive summer drought to establish how changes along the hydraulic pathway influence shoot responses. As soil water became limiting, leaf water potential, stomatal conductance and leaf transpiration declined significantly. Predawn leaf water potential reflected soil water potential measured at 1-m depth in the rhizospheres of most trees. The lowest predawn leaf water potential recorded during this period was -1.8 MPa. Mean maximum stomatal conductance declined from 300 to 50 mmol m(-2) s(-1), reducing transpiration from 6 to 2 mmol m(-2) s(-1). Changes in leaf gas exchange were attributed to reduced soil water availability, increased resistances along the hydraulic pathway and, hence, reduced leaf water supply. There was a strong coupling between changes in soil water content and stomatal conductance as well as between stomatal conductance and leaf specific hydraulic conductance. Despite significant seasonal differences among trees in predawn leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, leaf transpiration and leaf specific hydraulic conductance, there were no differences in midday leaf water potentials. The strong regulation of changes in leaf water potential in Q. suber both diurnally and seasonally is achieved through stomatal closure, which is sensitive to changes in both liquid and vapor phase conductance. This sensitivity allows for optimization of carbon and water resource use without compromising the root-shoot hydraulic link.     

Patterns of hydraulic architecture and water relations of two tropical canopy trees with contrasting leaf phenologies: Ochroma pyramidale and Pseudobombax septenatum

Many authors have attempted to explain the adaptive response of tropical plants to drought based on studies of water relations at the leaf level. Little attention has been given to the role of the xylem system in the control of plant water requirements. To evaluate this role, we studied the hydraulic architecture and water relations parameters of two tropical canopy trees with contrasting leaf phenologies: deciduous Pseudobombax septenatum (Jacq.) Dug and evergreen Ochroma pyramidale (Cav. ex lamb) Urban, both in the family Bombacaceae. The hydraulic architecture parameters studied include hydraulic conductivity, specific conductivity, leaf specific conductivity, and Huber value. Water relations parameters include leaf water potential, stem and leaf water storage capacitance, transpiration, stomatal conductance, and vulnerability of stems to cavitation and loss of hydraulic conductivity by embolisms. Compared to temperate trees, both species showed a pattern of highly vulnerable stems (50% loss of conductivity due to embolism at water potentials less than 1 MPa) with high leaf specific conductivities. The vulnerability of xylem to water-stress-induced embolism was remarkably similar for the two species but the leaf specific conductivity of petioles and leaf-bearing stems of the evergreen species, Ochroma (e.g., 9.08 and 11.4 x 10(-4) kg s(-1) m(-1) MPa(-1), respectively), were 3.4 and 2.3 times higher, respectively, than those of the deciduous species, Pseudobombax (e.g., 2.64 and 5.15 x 10(-4) kg s(-1) m(-1) MPa(-1), respectively). A runaway embolism model was used to test the ability of Ochroma and Pseudobombax stems to maintain elevated transpiration rates during the higher evaporative demand of the dry season. The percent loss of leaf area predicted by the runaway embolism model for stems of Pseudobombax ranged from 5 to 30%, not enough to explain the deciduous phenology of this tree species without analysis of root resistance or leaf and petiole vulnerability to embolism.     

Seasonal and interannual variability of canopy transpiration of a hedgerow in southern England

Transpiration from a hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna L.) dominated hedgerow in southern England was measured continuously over two growing seasons by the sap flow technique. Accompanying measurements of structural parameters, microclimate and leaf stomatal and boundary layer conductances were used to establish the driving factors of hedgerow transpiration. Observed transpiration rates, reaching peak values of around 8 mm day(-1) and a seasonal mean of about 3.5 mm day(-1), were higher than those reported for most other temperate deciduous woodlands, except short-rotation coppice and wet woodlands. The high rates were caused by the structural and physiological characteristics of hawthorn leaves, which exhibited much higher stomatal and boundary-layer conductances than those of the second-most abundant woody species in the hedgerow, field maple (Acer campestre L.). Only in the hot summer of 2003 did stomatal conductance, and thus transpiration, decrease substantially. The hedgerow canopy was always closely coupled to the atmosphere. Hedgerow transpiration equaled potential evaporation (calculated by the Priestley-Taylor formula) in 2003 and exceeded it in 2004, which meant that a substantial fraction of the energy (21% in 2003 and more than 37% in 2004) came from advection. Hedgerow canopy conductance (g(c)), as inferred from the sap flow data by inverting the Penman-Monteith equation, responded to solar radiation (R(G)) and vapor pressure deficit (D). Although the response to R(G) showed no systematic temporal variation, the response to D, described as g(c)(D) = g(cref) - mln(D), changed seasonally. The reference g(c) depended on leaf area index and the ratio of -m/g(cref) on long-term mean daytime D. A model is proposed based on these observations that predicts canopy conductance for the hawthorn hedge from standard weather data.     

Poor Stem Form as a Potential Limitation to Private Investment in Koa Plantation Forestry in Hawaii

Providing economic incentives to landholders is an effective way of promoting sustainable forest management, conservation and restoration. In Hawaii, the main native hardwood species with commercial value is Acacia koa (koa), but lack of successful examples of koa plantation forestry hinders private investment. Financial models, which have been offered to encourage investment, assume that a particular minimum volume of merchantable wood will be harvested at rotation age. No studies have been done to determine the appropriateness of the assumed volumes for koa plantations. Three 18- to 28-year-old koa plantations were studied to determine butt-log size, crown class and crop tree potential. Estimates of present and future merchantable sawtimber volume were made for each plantation. Results indicate that most existing plantation koa trees fork so close to the ground that they will produce little to no merchantable wood. Projected sawtimber yields from crop trees in these plantations at age 45 years are 10, 15 and 90 m³/ha, which are below the 135 m³/ha yield used in the most recent financial analysis of returns on investment in koa forestry. Relaxing the crop tree criteria gives higher volume yields, but two plantations still fall short of the assumed target yield by 43 and 52%. Given such shortfalls, returns on investment will be less than predicted by the financial analysis. Nevertheless, government offered financial incentives should compensate for lower volume yields and thus promote private investment in koa plantation forestry. Insect herbivory, genetic diversity, and low stand density contribute to poor stem form of plantation koa, and research is needed to quantify the relative importance of and interactions between these factors.     

Structural and compositional controls on transpiration in 40- and 450-year-old riparian forests in western Oregon, USA

Large areas of forests in the Pacific Northwest are being transformed to younger forests, yet little is known about the impact this may have on hydrological cycles. Previous work suggests that old trees use less water per unit leaf area or sapwood area than young mature trees of the same species in similar environments. Do old forests, therefore, use less water than young mature forests in similar environments, or are there other structural or compositional components in the forests that compensate for tree-level differences? We investigated the impacts of tree age, species composition and sapwood basal area on stand-level transpiration in adjacent watersheds at the H.J. Andrews Forest in the western Cascades of Oregon, one containing a young, mature (about 40 years since disturbance) conifer forest and the other an old growth (about 450 years since disturbance) forest. Sap flow measurements were used to evaluate the degree to which differences in age and species composition affect water use. Stand sapwood basal area was evaluated based on a vegetation survey for species, basal area and sapwood basal area in the riparian area of two watersheds. A simple scaling exercise derived from estimated differences in water use as a result of differences in age, species composition and stand sapwood area was used to estimate transpiration from late June through October within the entire riparian area of these watersheds. Transpiration was higher in the young stand because of greater sap flux density (sap flow per unit sapwood area) by age class and species, and greater total stand sapwood area. During the measurement period, mean daily sap flux density was 2.30 times higher in young compared with old Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) trees. Sap flux density was 1.41 times higher in young red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) compared with young P. menziesii trees, and was 1.45 times higher in old P. menziesii compared with old western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) trees. Overall, sapwood basal area was 21% higher in the young stand than in the old stand. In the old forest, T. heterophylla is an important co-dominant, accounting for 58% of total sapwood basal area, whereas P. menziesii is the only dominant conifer in the young stand. Angiosperms accounted for 36% of total sapwood basal area in the young stand, but only 7% in the old stand. For all factors combined, we estimated 3.27 times more water use by vegetation in the riparian area of the young stand over the measurement period. Tree age had the greatest effect on stand differences in water use, followed by differences in sapwood basal area, and finally species composition. The large differences in transpiration provide further evidence that forest management alters site water balance via elevated transpiration in vigorous young stands.     

Evaluation of sap flow density of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia melanoxylon</Emphasis> R. Br. (blackwood) trees in overstocked stands in north-western Iberian Peninsula

Sap flow density and meteorological variables were monitored in a very dense Acacia melanoxylon stand (about 9,000 trees/ha) in north-western Iberian Peninsula during the growing season of 2006 (from 8 June to 24 August). Evidences of an increment of stomatal control on transpiration were observed during the study period, probably as a consequence of higher evaporative demand of the atmosphere. However, high sap flow density values observed for the whole study period (from 1.14 to 52.73 dm³ dm⁻² day⁻¹) were similar than those found for other fast-growing species. Mean transpiration for the whole study period was 2.21 mm day⁻¹, with a maximum value of 3.17 mm day⁻¹ and a minimum of 1.23 mm day⁻¹. Mean sap flow density values were correlated with crown length and crown ratio, relationships being fairly weak with other dendrometric parameters such as tree diameter or height. Mean transpiration values were correlated with main dendrometric parameters (diameter at breast height, total height, crown length, sapwood area and leaf biomass). It was found that the degree of competition per tree could be used as a good index for sap flow density. Taking into account the high tree density of the stand and the sap flow density values, water consumptions of A. melanoxylon can be very high, playing a relevant role in the hydrological balances of the watersheds where it grows.