A lack of large-diameter logs and snags characterises dead wood patterns in Irish forests

Dead wood is an important component of forest ecosystems and volumes vary depending on forest age, management intensity and productivity. This is the first large-scale study to quantify dead wood in Irish forests and to compare them to forests in other locations. We measured the volume and size distribution of logs, the density and size distribution of snags and the volume of dead wood contained in stumps in Oak (Quercus spp.) and Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) forests and in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) plantations throughout Ireland. We also assigned each log, snag and stump to one of three decay classes (intact, part-rotted and well-rotted). We found no significant difference in log volume between any of the forest types. The majority (>90%) of logs were less than 20 cm in diameter, and large logs (>40 cm diameter) were scarce. We found a relatively high density of snags in all forest types but, as in the case of logs, over 90% of snags were <20 cm DBH and large snags (>40 cm DBH) were rare. The volume of dead wood contained in stumps was significantly higher in plantations than in Oak or Ash forests as a result of thinning and harvesting. Most logs and snags were moderately decayed but, in plantations, most stumps were intact. Log volume and the size of logs and snags were considerably lower than in old-growth forests in other regions. These patterns may reflect historical use of Irish forests for coppice and timber production. Management for biodiversity should aim to accelerate dead wood accumulation to increase the frequency of large-diameter logs and snags. Although management seeking to replicate the dead wood volumes of old-growth forests is ideal, it may be unrealistic in the short term.     

Goal programming approach for sustainable forest management （case study in Iranian Caspian forests）

We used a goal programming technique to determine the optimal harvest volume for the Iranian Caspian forest. We collected data including volume, growth, wood price at forest roadside, and variable harvesting costs. The allometric method was used to quantify seques- trated carbon. Regression analysis was used to derive growth models. Expected mean price was estimated using wood price and variable harvesting costs. Questionnaire was used to determine the constraints and the equation coefficients of the goal programming model. The optimal volume was determined using the goal programming method according to multipurpose forest management. LINGO software was used for analysis. Results indicated that the optimum volumes of species were 250.25 m3.ha-1 for beech, 59 m3.ha-1 for hornbeam, 73 m3.ha-1 for oak, 41 m3.ha-1 for alder, and 32 m3.ha-1 for other species. The total optimum volume is 455.25 m3.ha-1.     

Development and evaluation of local communities incentive programs for improving the traditional forest management: A case study of Northern Zagros forests,Iran

We examined the local community incentive programs to improve traditional forest management in three forested villages in Baneh city, Kurdistan province in the northern Zagros forests of western Iran. Zagros forests cover 6.07 million ha and support rich plant and animal diversity. Changes in local community social and economic sys-tems and the inefficiency of traditional forest management led to a criti-cal situation in the stability of forest regeneration in recent decades. Due to a shortage of productive and arable lands and resulting unemployment and poverty, people overexploited the Zagros forests. Outside interven-tion in traditional forest management creates conflicts between local peoples and forest management organizations. To achieve sustainable forest management, including forest resources conservation and im-provement of natural resource based livelihoods of communities, it is desirable to implement Forestry Incentive Programs （FIP） based on the important functions of forests. Detailed information on the so-cio-economics of communities, the effect of forests on local livelihoods, and lists of products extracted from the forest were obtained from a sur-vey of local communities though questionnaire, interview and observa-tion. We studied 276 households in three villages and completed 76 ques-tionnaires by householders in the quantitative analysis. Sampling was performed by simple random sampling （SRS）. The needs of rural com-munities, such as livestock husbandry, mainly arise from the characteris-tics and environmental features of villages. We identified the driving forces, pressures, status, impacts and responses （DPSIR） to design incen-tive programs, by DPSIR analysis and interaction analysis. Evaluation of local community benefits from forests showed that in order to improve forest management, 319 dollars per year would be needed by each family as an incentive in 2010 to prevent lopping and firewood collecting, the main causes of forest degradation.     

Community forests in Baden-Württemberg (Germany): A case study for successful Public-Public-Partnership

This paper examines the current situation and future prospects for community forestry in the south-west of Germany. A classification of functional types of community forests and a unique form of forest administration as an appropriate reaction to the intensive mixture of ownership types are explained. In most cases institutional support is more important than direct measure-related subsidies. The results of customer satisfaction analysis and indicators including participation in the state ranger system provide evidence that the model of Public-Public-Partnership (PuPuP) has proved successful. The role of various forest functions in the individual community is highlighted. High productivity in community forests, increasing wood consumption in the housing sector and increasing use for energy production suggest favourable prospects for community forestry in Baden-Württemberg. Equally important are efforts to increase technical efficiency of production. Improved stakeholder communication can result in a better perception of the importance of forestry. The paper also identifies relevant threats to community forestry. The increasing cost-price squeeze is one of the crucial risks for communal forest enterprises. Additionally, an anti-trust campaign of the timber industry endangers their market position. A reorganisation of the state forest administration will result in a lower level of financial and institutional support.     

Role of homestead forests in household economy and factors affecting forest production: a case study in southwest Bangladesh

Empirical information regarding the role of homestead forests in household economy is essential in understanding the importance of these resources. Identification of the factors that affect homestead forest production and understanding forest owners' attitudes toward key forest management issues have great significance in making appropriate policy responses to manage these resources on a sustainable basis. In Bangladesh, homestead forests are claimed to play an important economic role in rural livelihoods, but no reliable quantitative information exists. This study was undertaken to investigate the role of homestead forests in the household economy, examine if forest production and income vary across landholding size classes, to explore the relationships of homestead forest production with species richness, education level, and household size, and to assess the attitude of homestead forest owners toward key forest management issues. Results show that homestead forests contribute 15.9% of the household income and generate 51.4 man-days of employment per household per year. Production of homestead forests significantly varies across landholding size classes. It was observed that forest production depends significantly on species richness of homestead forests and the education level of forest owners. However, no such relationship was found between forest production and household size. The study revealed that farming families depend more on forest income than nonfarming families. Attitudes of forest owners toward key forest management issues differ significantly across landholding size classes. For example, although the majority of the forest owners prefer fruit species to timber species, the percentage of respondents decreased as the landholding size class increased, while the opposite trend was observed for timber species. The findings of this study suggest that diversification of forests and extension of education amongst forest owners would improve forest production. Furthermore, forest policy should address the concerns of the forest owners in different landholding classes and focus on their specific requirements to enhance sustainable forest management.     

Effects on forest products markets of second-generation biofuel production based on biomass from boreal forests: a case study from Norway

Second-generation biofuels are often seen as essential element in the future bioeconomy strategy. Countries with extensive forest resources such as Norway often view wood as preferred bio-feedstock, yet the effects of wood demand on assortments of harvested wood and other wood-based industries are unclear. Focusing on the importance of feedstock choice, we analyse the impacts of establishing a second-generation medium-scale biofuel plant in Norway. For the analysis, a dynamic forest sector model where the choice of tree species, wood assortments, production of bioenergy, and forest industry products are explicitly included, was applied. We find the optimal biofuel feedstock mix to be dominated by softwood chips from pulpwood comprising 48% of total biomass inputs in 2030 and increasing to 67% by 2055, followed by hardwood chips from birch, comprising initially 34% of total biomass inputs and 16% by 2055. The proportion of harvest residues remained constant at about 18% over time and roundwood was not used at all for biofuel production. Despite the additional demand for chips, the single medium-scale biofuel plant will have only minor effects on existing forest industries and harvests in Norway, as the domestic impact is dampened by changes in foreign trade flows, especially of chips.     

Exploring the future use of forests: perceptions from non-industrial private forest owners in Finland

The transformation of the forest sector toward a bioeconomy calls for finding new sources of competitive advantage for the whole sector to retain its future viability. Non-industrial private forest owners are an important group of actors in the Finnish forest-based sector, as they supply 80% of industrial roundwood and control numerous other tangible and intangible forest-based ecosystem services. Our study analyzes forest owner views on the future use of forests in Finland, their perceptions on the evolving sectorial interlinkages and the position of the forest sector now and in the future bioeconomy. The data were collected in two phases: through telephone interviews of forest owners (n?=?278) and four focus group (FG) discussions (n?=?17), and were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The interviews showed that forest owners consider the highest potential for strengthening the sector toward bioeconomy to come from collaboration with energy and construction businesses. During the FG phase, we identified new possibilities founded on forest-based recreational services, cooperation with nature-based tourism and in increasing value-added wood products. In total, forest owners as a high-involvement group emphasized future value creation to be based upon forest ecosystem services and in diversifying the utilization of forests beyond the dominant raw material-driven mindset.     

河南省黄河中游天然林保护区封山育林研究

本文依据植物群落演替理论,结合河南省黄河中游天然林保护区森林植被的分布现状,将区域内森林植被划分为三个大区,通过分析研究,提出了各区的稳定森林植被群落,并对封山育林典型模式进行了分析评价。探讨了封山育林的规律。     

韩国森林中枯死木及地被物对小型鼠类丰富度的影响(英文)

在南韩东北部,1997-1998年间,自4月至12月对人工林和无枯死木生境及采伐后保留地被物的落叶次生林中的小型鼠类种群特征进行了调查。在两块林地中各选择1 hm2(100m100m)样地作为控制区和处理区。两块研究地的中上层林冠结构基本相似,但倒木及地被物的数量及比例却显示控制区大于处理区。两区域中共捕到两种小型鼠类,其中棕背 (Eothenomys regulus)211只,占总数的55.5%,大林姬鼠(Apodemus peninsulae)169只,占44.5%。这两种鼠类的丰富度及种群稳定性在控制区明显优于处理区。两地小型鼠类的不同捕获量主要来自两地鼠类繁殖率和居留率的不同。显然,森林地被结构对小型鼠类的生存具有重要意义。因此,采伐迹地中保留枯死木及地被物是维持小型鼠类种群所必须的。     

Diversity of polyporous fungi (Polyporaceae) in northern boreal forests: effects of forest site type and logging intensity

The effects of forest site type and logging intensity on polyporous fungi were studied in subxeric, mesic and herb-rich forests and spruce mires in northern Finland. The species richness of polypores did not follow the fertility gradient of the site types, but was connected with the amount and diversity of coarse woody debris (CWD). The total number of species, and the numbers of indicator and threatened species were equal in subxeric pine forests and in more fertile spruce-dominated stands. The species composition of pine-dominated forests differed conspicuously from that of spruce-dominated site types. The total number of species was not affected by logging intensity, but no virgin forest species or threatened species were found on the sites where the number of cut stumps exceeded 150 stumps ha^?1. Increasing logging intensity decreased the number of polypore observations, indicating reduced substrate availability. The results stress the importance of protecting not only fertile spruce-dominated stands, but also poorer, pine-dominated forests, and sites with high and diverse CWD content.     

Homestead forest resources and their role in household economy: A case study in the villages of Gazipur Sadar Upazila of central Bangladesh

This study examines the species composition, diversity and economic importance of homestead forests in the household economy of central Bangladesh. The study documents 57 homestead forest species and their main usage in 90 households across three villages of Gazipur Sadar Upazila. Homestead forests in Bangladesh comprise a mixture of fruit, timber and bamboo species. While superficially homestead forestry appears unimportant in rural livelihoods, in reality the contribution is huge, both as a source of food security and for other necessary household materials. A clear understanding of the physical characteristics and economic role of homestead forests in rural livelihoods is vital for ensuring sustainable resource management. Income and production of homestead forestry on a per hectare basis are found to vary widely between landholding size classes. Significant relationships are identified between forest performance (production and income) and species richness and education level. Homestead forestry appears to be a potential subsistence income generating land-use practice in the study area. The economic scope of homestead forestry can be further enhanced provided the appropriate species composition of the forest is achieved and the education of forest owners is ensured through targeted management and policy interventions.     

Assemblages of wood-inhabiting fungi related to silvicultural management intensity in beech forests in southern Germany

Current silvicultural treatments in beech forests are aimed at achieving thick logs without discoloured hardwood. Therefore intensive thinning is applied already in younger stands with the objective of large-sized trunks at an age of 100 years. However, this approach bears the risk that dead wood structures and broken trees are completely removed from the forest. The impact of three different silvicultural management intensity levels on wood-inhabiting fungi over decades was investigated in a large beech forest (>10,000 ha) in southern Germany in 69 sampling plots: A Intensive Thinning and Logging with high-value trees, B Conservation-Oriented Logging with integration of special structures such as dead wood and broken trees and C Strict Forest Reserves with no logging for 30 years. The analysis of community showed marked differences in the fungus species composition of the three treatments, independent of stand age. The relative frequencies of species between treatments were statistically different. Indicator species for naturalness were more abundant at sites with low silvicultural management intensity. Fomes fomentarius, the most common fungus in virgin forests and strict forest reserves, is almost missing in forests with high-management intensity. The species richness seemed to be lower where intensive thinning was applied (P = 0.051). Species characteristic for coarse woody debris were associated to low management intensity, whereas species with a significant preference for stumps became more frequent with increasing management intensity. A total amount of dead wood higher than 60 m³/ha was found to enable significantly higher numbers of species indicators of naturalness (P = 0.013). In conclusion, when applying intensive silvicultural treatment, the role of dead wood needs to be actively considered in order to maintain the natural biocoenosis of beech forests.     

Ecological and economical sustainability assessment of community forest management in Nepal: A reality check

This study analyzes the sustainability of community forest management, representing four forest types of two physiographic region Hills and Terai of Nepal. We assess the sustainability based on species composition, stand density, growing stock volume, and growth-to-removal ratio using inventory data of 109 permanent forest plots from four consecutive intervals of three to five years. In addition, forest users, forest committee members, and forest officials were consulted. We observed increment on the representation of economically valuable tree species in all forest types of both regions. The pole-size tree dominates in all forest types with declining number of trees and regeneration. In case of Hills forests, they were over-harvested until 2013 but were under-harvested in the recent period. In contrary, forests were under-harvested in the Terai. We found that ecological objectives of sustainable management are fully achieved while economic benefits remained unharnessed where harvesting is far below the growth. We conclude that maintaining a large number of trees may contribute to ecological but not on economical sustainability. We argue to rationalize annual harvest in all categories of the forest to enhance resource conditions together with regular benefits to the local communities.     

Risk management: A probe and study on forest fires

The subject of risk management is attracting more and more attention around the world. The risk of forest fire disasters should be faced and dealt with for forest fires cannot be avoided. Treating forest fire disasters as a risk management issue promotes important measures and methods for fire fighters to prevent, reduce and control the risks of forest fires. In this paper, the risk concept and risk connotation as well as the management risks for forest fire suppression are discussed clearly. Issues such as risk judgments, risk analysis, risk control and the assessment of risk, including their contents and corresponding methods are clarified. Translated from Forest Resources Management, 2006, 2: 24–27 [译自: 林业资源맜理]     

Ecosystem management based on large-scale disturbance pulses: A case study from sub-boreal forests of western Quebec (Canada)

The northern Témiscamingue region (western Québec) sustained regional-scale pulses of natural disturbances during the 1850–2000 period, such as severe fires during the 1908–1926 period, two severe spruce budworm outbreaks that occurred in 1909–1918 and 1974–1984, and two birch dieback episodes around 1940 and 1980. These disturbances produced synchronous fluctuations in forest characteristics over large spatial scales. In this paper, we review possible responses of flora and fauna to pulsed large-scale disturbance events and speculate on whether they should be emulated to reduce the impacts of forest management on non-timber resources. The importance of large-scale disturbance pulses for biodiversity and forest ecosystem integrity is potentially great, but this aspect has been poorly investigated by previous research, and thus there is little information available to guide forest management. Large-scale, synchronous disturbances could be emulated by clustering harvesting activities in time, for example by creating “harvest pulses” of 10–20 years, separated by periods of 50–100 years or so with low harvest rates. A potential disadvantage of this strategy is that when our capacity to predict future natural disturbances is low, there is a higher probability of accidentally taking the forest ecosystem outside of the range of natural variability compared with a status quo forest management scenario. From a socio-economic perspective, another potential disadvantage is in creating irregular wood flows to the forest transformation industry. Nonetheless, in a context where the forest has been over-disturbed in the recent past, a forest management strategy involving fluctuating harvest rates could provide the means for faster ecosystem recovery compared with a status quo strategy. We recommend that the potential importance of disturbance pulses for boreal and sub-boreal ecosystems be more thoroughly investigated by future research to inform management and conservation policies.     

Mites of the genus Carabodes (Acari,Oribatida) in Norwegian coniferous forests: occurrence in different soils,vegetation types and polypore hosts

Oribatid mites (Acari) represent a considerable part of the biodiversity in Fennoscandian forests, but our knowledge about their habitat requirements is limited. We studied 10 Carabodes species in the forest floor of seven coniferous forest types, and in dead fruiting bodies (sporocarps) of 6 species of wood-living polypore fungi in southern Norway. The most common Carabodes species in soil were rare in sporocarps, and vice versa. The density of several ground-living species was significantly influenced by vegetation type and soil type. Carabodes willmanni and C. subarcticus were considered as lichen feeders on the ground, and occurred abundantly in Cladonia-rich pine forests. Three species, C. femoralis, C. areolatus and C. reticulatus, seem to be sporocarp specialists. Their relative numbers were rather similar in dead sporocarps of five different fungal species, including annual and perennial sporocarps, soft and hard. This was in contrast to beetles from the same sporocarps, which in a previous study proved to be strongly host-specific. Although being tolerant to different fungal species, the association of certain Carabodes species to dead sporocarps could make them vulnerable in forests with little dead wood and few sporocarps.     

Effect of human disturbance on the structure and regeneration of forests in the Nevado de Toluca National Park, Mexico

Sample plots were established in the principal forest types in the the Nevado de Toluca National Park, Mexico including those dominated by Pinus hartwegii, Abies religiosa, Quercus laurina and Alnus jorullensis. The vertical structure was defined by three strata in the coniferous forests and two strata in the broadleaved forests. Timber harvesting in Abies religiosa and Quercus laurina forests and fires generated by humans in Pinus hartwegii forests impeded the recruitment of saplings. Mature trees were also heavily impacted by logging in Pinus hartwegii forests. On the contrary, Alnus jorullensis forests were increasing due to the disturbance of Pinus and Quercus forests, as well abandoned crop lands within the park. A combination of logging, uncontrolled fire, and grazing appears to be compromising the recruitment of important tree species in this national park. These factors, together with human settlements, have also increased the proportion of early successional species. Changes in forest structure from human disturbance indicate a need to control these activities if conservation goals are not to be compromised.     

Legacies from natural forest dynamics: Different effects of forest management on wood-inhabiting fungi in pine and spruce forests

The species composition of wood-inhabiting fungi (polypores and corticoids) was investigated on 1138 spruce logs and 992 pine logs in 90 managed and 34 natural or near-natural spruce and pine forests in SE Norway.Altogether, the study included 290 species of wood-inhabiting fungi. Comparisons of logs with similar properties (standardized tree species, decay class, dimension class) in natural and managed forests showed a significant reduction in species number per log in managed spruce forests, but not in managed pine forests. The species number per log in managed spruce forests was 10-55% lower than on logs from natural spruce forests. The reduction was strongest on logs of large dimensions. A comparison of 200-400 spruce logs from natural and managed forests showed a 25% reduction in species richness corresponding to a conservative loss of ca. 40 species on a regional scale.A closer inspection revealed that species confined to medium and very decayed spruce logs were disfavored in managed forests, whereas species on early decay classes and decay generalists were unaffected. Similarly, species preferring large spruce logs were disfavored in managed forests. Forest management had strongest impact on low-frequent species in the spruce forests (more than 50% reduction), whereas common species were modestly affected. Corticoid fungi were more adversely affected than polypore fungi.These results indicate that wood-decaying fungi in pine forests are more adapted to forest disturbances than spruce-associated species. Management measures securing a continuous supply of dead wood are more important in spruce forests than in pine forests.     

Impact of community forest program in protection forest on livelihood outcomes: A case study of Lampung Province,Indonesia

The global to local-level importance of Indonesian forests for the environment and development is now very well documented. However, how to govern these forests to achieve the diverse and, at times, conflicting interests is still an open question. Hutan Kemasyarakatan (HKm) is a community forest (CF) that is being implemented to contribute to local development while creating sufficient incentives for conserving the forest. Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of HKm to conserve forests. This study analyzed the changes in the five major types of capital for HKm farmers. The results indicated HKm to have contributed positively to the improvement of natural, physical, and human capital. In addition to its direct impact, HKm was also found to improve the financial capital of the farmers by avoiding patron–client relationships and side payments between the pre-HKm illegal encroacher farmers (now legal land cultivators) and government officers. Although the results support the possibility of HKm producing a win-win situation between forest conservation and rural development, its future applicability, especially with consideration of population growth and associated increase in demand for cultivation land, needs to be given due emphasis.     

Effect of canopy gap size and ecological factors on species diversity and beech seedlings in managed beech stands in Hyrcanian forests

We studied the species diversity of the herb layer and ecological factors in harvest-created gaps in beech stands under a single-tree selection system in Northern Iran. To determine diversity, the number of beech seedlings, and other ecological factors, 16 gaps were selected and subplots of 5 m2 were positioned at the centre and at the cardinal points of each gap. Species richness and Simpson diversity index increased with increasing gap area as did numbers of seedlings. With increasing humus layer thickness, species richness declined but the Hill evenness index increased. Species richness increased with increasing light availability. There was no relationship between crown radii of beech trees and diversity indices. Correlations between environmental factors and numbers ofindividuals of some species in the herb layer were not significant except in a few cases. The results help explain the effects of man-made gaps on the dynamics of managed beech stands and this benefits evaluation of silvicultural operating plans.