Congenital cataracts and persistent hyaloid vasculature in a llama (Lama glama)

A 9-month-old llama was evaluated for apparent blindness. Bilateral cataracts were diagnosed and cataract surgery was performed on the right eye. At the time of surgery persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous, persistent hyperplastic tunica vasculosa lentis, and a persistent hyaloid artery were observed. Prior to surgery Power Doppler ultrasound revealed a patent tunica vasculosa lentis OS. Despite reports of a poor success rate for llama cataract surgery, through use of careful tissue handling, phacoemulsification, viscoelastic endothelial protectants, anti-inflammatories, and BSS-Plus irrigating solution, vision was successfully restored in both eyes of the llama.     

Intraocular pressure in normal llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos)

Objective: To determine the mean intraocular pressure in llamas ( Lama glama ) and alpacas ( Lama pacos ) using applanation tonometry. Animals studied: Ten llamas and 10 alpacas. Procedures: Intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured with a Tono-Pen™ XL (Mentor Ophthalmics, Inc., Norwell, MA, USA). Three values, with 5% variance, were recorded for each eye. Least-squares means were determined for IOP for each eye of llamas and alpacas. Controlling for age, differences between left and right eye were analyzed using anova . Two age groups were established, less than 5 years and greater than 5 years. The effect of age on IOP within each group was analyzed by linear regression. Probability values of less than 0.05 were considered significant. Results: Comparison of mean IOP between right ( n  = 20) and left eyes ( n  = 20), independent of species type, showed no differences in IOPs for llamas and alpacas. Mean IOP declined with increasing age in llamas and alpacas. Mean IOPs for 20 eyes in 10 llamas was 16.96 ± 3.51 mmHg. Mean IOP for 20 eyes in 10 alpacas was 16.14 ± 3.74 mmHg. Mean IOP for all eyes ( n  = 40), independent of species, was 16.55 ± 3.55 mmHg. The range of IOP in normal llamas and alpacas within 2 SD (95% of the population) was 14.89±18.21 mmHg. Conclusions: There was no significant difference in IOP between alpacas and llamas. Mean IOP in both species decreased with increased age.     

Coccidioides posadasii keratouveitis in a llama (Lama glama)

A 7-year-old male llama was examined for a 3-month history of weight loss, and unilateral keratouveitis. Clinical examination revealed nonulcerative corneal stromal abscessation, corneal vascularization, corneal edema, miosis, posterior synechia, cataract, and fibrin in the anterior chamber of the right eye. The left eye was normal. Histopathology of the right eye following enucleation revealed pyogranulomatous keratouveitis with intralesional fungal spherules consistent with Coccidioides spp. PCR amplification with DNA sequencing confirmed Coccidioides posadasii infection. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of ocular coccidioidomycosis in a llama.     

Arteries of the hindfoot of the llama (Lama glama)

The objective of this study was to describe the arterial distribution of the hindfoot of the llama (Lama glama). Ten adult llamas, preserved in 6% formalin solution at 0 degree C, were dissected. The arterial system was perfused with a solution of 14% coloured plaster; the venous system was perfused with a solution of 17% coloured industrial gelatin. Angiographies were also obtained. In the llama, the arterial distribution is of the saphenous type and this simple sort of irrigation could be used as a didactic model. The caudal branch of the saphenous artery divides into the small lateral plantar artery and the larger medial plantar artery, which continues as the plantar common digital artery III, and it is the main blood supply of the hindfoot. The dorsal pedal artery is underdeveloped and the perforating tarsal artery does not exist in this species. The plantar common digital artery III divides into the plantar proper digital II, III and IV. Branches from the plantar proper digital artery III supply the digits. We compared the arterial distribution of the hindfoot of the llama with that of other domestic animals including the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius).     

Growth characteristics of the llama (Lama glama) from birth to 12 months old

This study has characterised the growth patterns of the llama (Lama glama) from birth to 12 months old. Bodyweight growth was described as a function of age. As a means of predicting bodyweight, equations were developed which correlated bodyweight with specific body measurements. Regression analysis revealed a strong positive correlation of logtransformed measurements of thoracic circumference and height with bodyweight. Thoracic circumference (measured in cm) was a good predictor of bodyweight from the equation: bodyweight (kg) = (8.7 x 10(-4)) x circumference2.46 (r2 = 0.91).     

Surgical treatment of uterine torsion in a llama (Lama glama)

A multiparous llama was presented because of failure to proceed into the second stage of labor. Clockwise uterine torsion and a live fetus were identified by rectal and vaginal examinations. A cesarean operation was elected because of the prolonged first stage of labor and lack of cervical dilatation. Anesthesia was induced with a 10% guaifenesin solution administered intravenously via a pressurized pump followed by intubation and maintenance with 2% halothane. A ventral midline surgical approach exposed the uterus and the fetus was removed through a uterotomy. The placenta was manually stripped from the myometrial edges of the incision and the margins were oversewn using a continuous interlocking pattern. The uterus was then closed using a continuous Utrecht pattern and the uterus rotated 180 degrees back to its normal anatomical position. The abdomen was closed in 3 layers. Recovery of the llama was uneventful with the male cria able to nurse 6 hours post-operatively. Placental expulsion occurred approximately 48 hours after fetal removal.     

Immune response of the llama (Lama glama) to tetanus toxoid vaccination

An ELISA was developed to measure serum concentrations of tetanus toxoid-specific immunoglobulins. The titers obtained with this assay were compatible with those obtained by the standard mouse toxin-neutralization test. Serum samples from 123 llamas were analyzed for ELISA titers to tetanus toxoid. Of the 82 vaccinated adults, 75 (91%) had titers greater than or equal to 1:50. The vaccination status and titers of weanlings and juveniles (3 to 12 months old) varied; of the 21 vaccinated, 17 (81%) had titers greater than or equal to 1:50 and 7 of 9 (78%) unvaccinated llamas had titers less than 1:50. The ELISA titers of unvaccinated llamas less than 8 weeks old (crias) were matched with the maternal titers. All crias with titers less than 1:50 had dams with titers greater than or equal to 1:50.     

Genotypic characterization of Chilean llama (Lama glama) and alpaca (Vicugna pacos) pestivirus isolates

Llamas and alpacas are domesticated South American camelids (SACs) important to ancestral population in the Altiplano region, and to different communities worldwide where they have been introduced. These ungulates have shown to be susceptible to several livestock viral pathogens such as members of the Pestivirus genus, in particular Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVDV), but there is little data available on Pestivirus infections in SACs. In this study we aimed to detect and identify Pestivirus genotypes and subgroups infecting SACs in both wild and confined environments. Samples were collected from 136 llamas and 30 alpacas from different areas in the Chilean Altiplano (wild animals), and from 22 llamas and 26 alpacas diagnosed as Pestivirus positive from the Metropolitana region in Chile (confined animals). Seroneutralization tests showed titers lower than 2 in all 166 samples from Chilean Altiplano. These samples were also negative to BVDV isolation, indicating that these animals have not been exposed to Pestivirus. After reactivation of positive samples from the Metropolitana region, the 5′ non-codifying region (5′NCR) and E2 glycoprotein were amplified by RT-PCR from the Pestivirus genome. Viral sequences were pairwise compared and phylogenetic trees were constructed. The 5′NCR analysis showed that all 12 sequenced isolates belonged to BVDV-1. Of particular interest, isolates from eight llama and two alpaca were BVDV-1j and two alpacas were BVDV-1b. In agreement with these results, E2 phylogenetic analysis rendered a similar grouping indicating that all 16 isolates belong to BVDV-1. However, the lower availability of E2 sequences determines the creation of a smaller number of sub-groups than the 5′NCR sequences. Based on the E2 sequences, the 5′NCR BVDV 1j group consisting of all the llamas and 3 alpacas are completely included in the E2 BVDV 1e group. Due to the universal availability of the 5′NCR segment, we propose the classification of these Chilean llamas and alpacas Pestivirus isolates as BVDV 1j and BVDV 1b respectively. Thus, this is the first time BVDV-1j is obtained in SACs. In addition, these results indicate Pestivirus infection in llamas and alpacas is associated with bovine population as genotypes and sub-groups are the same as those affecting Chilean livestock.     

Congenital malformation of the front limbs in a llama (Lama glama): polydactyly in combination with arthrogryposis

A male, 10 month old llama with malformation of both front limbs was presented. Both front limbs had one more digit located medially. The distal phalanx of this additional digit at the left front limb reached the ground by the tip of the keratinzed pad and the toenail. The accessory digit at the right front limb was bent in a 90 degree angle caudolateraly. Beside the digital bones of the accessory digits the second metacarpal bone and the first carpal bone could be detected in both front limbs by radiological examination. Secondary a bilateral slight carpal valgus deformity could be seen.     

Evaluation of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii infections in alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and llama (Lama glama) aborted foetuses from Peru

The aim of this study was to investigate the participation of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in abortion cases of Peruvian llamas and alpacas. Fifteen aborted foetuses were recovered from two main rearing areas of camelids in Peru (Central or South Andean region). Foetal histopathology was used to detect the presence of protozoal-associated lesions in target organs. N. caninum and T. gondii infections were confirmed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) combined with PCR and by PCR alone, respectively. The influence of the species (llama and alpaca), foetal age (first, second and third gestational periods) and geographical location (Central or South Andean region) of the foetuses was also studied. Thirteen of the samples (26%, 13/50) showed lesions suggestive of protozoal infection. N. caninum infection was detected by either IHC or specific PCR in 14 out of 50 foetuses (28%), of which 8 also showed protozoal-associated lesions. T. gondii DNA was not detected in any of the foetuses analysed. Protozoal infection was more frequent in the foetuses from the second gestational period (P<0.05, Fisher F-test). No significant association was observed between protozoal infection and species or geographical location (P>0.05, chi2 test). The results of the present study indicate that neosporosis should be included during the differential diagnosis of abortion in llamas and alpacas.     

Retinoblastoma in the eye of a llama (Llama glama)

ANIMAL STUDIED: A 6-year-old, pregnant female llama experienced a 6-month history of epiphora, buphthalmos, and acute loss of vision in the left eye. The condition was unresponsive to topical antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory therapy and progressed to corneal rupture. PROCEDURES: Transpalpebral enucleation was performed and an intraorbital silicone prosthesis was implanted. The eye was fixed in formalin and processed according to routine paraffin technique. Sections of a mass were immunohistochemically prepared routinely and stained for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), S-antigen, and rhodopsin. RESULTS: Gross, histopathologic, and immunohistochemical analysis revealed a retinal tumor consistent with a retinoblastoma. The neoplastic tissue formed Flexner-Wintersteiner and Homer-Wright rosettes, originated from the retina, and demonstrated photoreceptor differentiation with S-antigen and rhodopsin expression. Neoplastic cells were negative for GFAP. Four years after enucleation, the llama showed no signs of recurrent neoplasia. CONCLUSIONS: This report describes the diagnosis and successful treatment of the first known retinoblastoma in a llama.     

Antigenic variability in bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) isolates from alpaca (Vicugna pacos), llama (Lama glama) and bovines in Chile

Llamas and alpacas are domesticated South American camelids (SACs) important to ancestral population in the Altiplano region, and to different communities where they have been introduced worldwide. These ungulates have shown to be susceptible to several livestock viral pathogens such as members of the Pestivirus genus and mainly to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Seventeen Chilean BVDV isolates were analyzed by serum cross neutralization with samples obtained from five llama, six alpacas, three bovines, plus three reference strains belonging to different subgroups and genotypes. The objective was to describe antigenic differences and similarities among them. Antigenic comparison showed significant differences between different subgroups. Consequently, antigenic similarities were observed among isolates belonging to the same subgroup and also between isolates from different animal species belonging the same subgroup. Among the analyzed samples, one pair of 1b subgroup isolates showed significant antigenic differences. On the other hand, one pair of isolates from different subgroups (1b and 1j) shared antigenic similarities indicating antigenic relatedness. This study shows for the first time the presence of antigenic differences within BVDV 1b subgroup and antigenic similarities within 1j subgroup isolates, demonstrating that genetic differences within BVDV subgroups do not necessary corresponds to differences on antigenicity.     

Results of Schirmer tear test in clinically normal llamas (Lama glama)

Purpose To determine the normal reference range for Schirmer tear test (STT) values in clinically normal llamas (Lama glama) Animals Nine captive llamas (Lama glama) (seven females and two males) were used in this study. Procedure Complete ophthalmic examinations were performed without chemical restraint. STT I values were evaluated in both eyes of all llamas using a commercial STT strip of a single lot number (Schirmer‐Tränentest^®, Germany). STT II value was also measured in both eyes of seven female llamas. Results No statistically significant differences among ages or between right and left eyes were found for any of the results. The mean ± SD STT I of 18 eyes of nine llamas was 17.3 ± 1.1 mm/min (Range 15–19 mm/min). The mean ± SD STT II of 14 eyes of seven llamas was 15.4 ± 1.7 mm/min (Range 12.5–17.5 mm/min). A paired samples t‐test demonstrated that there was a significant difference between the STT I and II values (P = 0.001). Conclusion This study provides novel data for normal reference ranges of STT I and II values in healthy llamas. Results of this study may assist veterinarians in the diagnosis of ocular surface disease and syndromes affecting the tear film in these species.     

Measurements of the bodyweight and other physical characteristics of 11 llamas (Lama glama) from birth to weaning

The bodyweight (bw), thoracic circumference, length and height of 11 llamas were recorded weekly from birth for 27 weeks. Their mean (sd) birth weight was 11.60 (2.35) kg and their weight increased in curvilinear fashion reaching 61.05 (13.75) kg after 27 weeks. Their average daily gains reached the highest value three weeks after birth and then decreased, reaching the lowest value of 262 g per day at 27 weeks. On a metabolic bw(0.83) basis, the growth of the llamas when their dams were at peak lactation was comparable with that of calves, fawns and lambs. All the measurements were significantly affected by the age, but not by the sex of the young or the parity of the dam. The regression models chosen to predict the bodyweight and weight gain of the llamas yielded R(2) ranging from 0.97 to 0.99. Correlations between bodyweight and other single body measurements were between r=0.68 and 0.77. Single or combined body measurements were good predictors of bodyweight, but additional body measurements added little to the already good fit provided by a single measurement (R(2) ranging from 0.93 to 0.98). The thoracic circumference (R(2)=0.98) and length (R(2)=0.96) were good predictors of the bodyweight of the llamas between birth and 27 weeks old.     

Physical characteristics of reticuloruminal contents of oxen in relation to forage type and time after feeding

The stratification of reticulorumen (RR) contents has been described in domestic ruminants, but suspected to be absent in certain wild ruminant species. To investigate how such stratification could be quantified, we tested variables indicating stratification in three oxen with rumen cannulae, fed once daily for 3 h, one of three different forages (fresh grass FG, grass hay GH, lucerne hay LH). Ingesta samples from dorsal rumen (DR), ventral rumen (VR) and reticulum (RET) were taken at 0, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h after the last meal and analyzed for dry matter (DM) concentration, mean particle size and proportion of floating/sedimenting particles. Viscosity was measured in centrifuged RR fluid. There was no relevant variation in rumen fluid viscosity over time or with feeding regime. Dry matter content in DR was always higher than in VR or RET and increased after feeding. When LH and FG were fed, DR always contained larger particles than VR, except at 6 and 12 h of feeding GH. The proportion of floating particles was higher in DR than VR except at GH 6 h and GR between 6 and 12 h. The floating particle fraction mostly contained larger particles, except for GH 3 h in both DR and VR and for FG 3–12 h in DR. Changes in the distribution of particle size and proportion of floating particles over time comply with the theoretical course of fermentative digestion for different forages, but make these variables unreliable indicators of stratification in less controlled settings, such as investigations in wild ruminants. In contrast, viscosity of rumen fluids appears constant over time and feeding regime and might be used as a species‐specific variable. The difference in DM content in DR and VR is a reliable indicator for RR contents stratification characterized by an oversaturation of the contents with fluid, leading to lower VR DM contents.     

Corpus luteum vascularization during the maternal recognition of pregnancy in llamas (Lama glama)

The aim of this study was to characterize corpus luteum vascularization and its association with plasma progesterone concentration in early stages of pregnancy, when maternal recognition of pregnancy is expected to occur. In all animals, both plasma progesterone concentration and corpus luteum vascularization increased from Day 6 to Day 8 post-mating and afterwards in non-pregnant llamas they started to decrease to reach basal levels around Days 12 to 14 post-mating, while in pregnant animals, both variables remained elevated until the end of the study. A lineal positive relationship between corpus luteum vascularization and plasma progesterone concentration was observed in pregnant (r² = .46, p < .0001) and non-pregnant llamas (r² = .66, p < .0001). Pregnant animals showed higher plasma progesterone concentration and corpus luteum vascularization than the non-pregnant ones from Day 12 post-mating until the end of the study (p ˂ .05 and p ˂ .01, respectively). These results suggest that maternal recognition of pregnancy should occur before Day 12 post-mating in order to expand luteal lifespan, maintaining corpus luteum vascularization and progesterone production. Also, the assessment of CL vascularization area could be a useful and non-invasive method for early pregnancy diagnosis due to its association with plasma progesterone concentration.     

Cryptosporidiosis in two alpaca (Lama pacos) holdings in the South-West of England

Cryptosporidiosis was investigated on two alpaca (Lama pacos) holdings in the South-West of England. Diagnosis was initially confirmed in a cria with diarrhoea from each holding. Cohort faeces samples were subsequently collected and examined for presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts by immunofluorescence microscopy. On the first holding, 30 samples (24 adults, 6 crias) were tested, and oocysts were detected in three of the cria samples but in none of the adults. On the second holding, 14 floor faeces samples representing apparently healthy crias and one faeces sample from a cria with diarrhoea were collected. Oocysts were detected in four of the "healthy" faeces samples and the sample of diarrhoeic faeces. All isolates were confirmed as Cryptosporidium parvum using polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism of the cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein (COWP) and ssu rRNA genes. Sequence analysis of a 741bp region of ssu rDNA was carried out on nine of these and revealed high sequence homology with previously reported C. parvum isolates. This investigation highlights the possibility of alpaca crias subclinically shedding oocysts, which has implications for epidemiology and transmission in animals as well as raising zoonotic concerns for human contacts. Gene sequencing of UK isolates from South American camelids is also described for the first time.     

Brainstem auditory-evoked potential assessment of auditory function and congenital deafness in llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (L. pacos)

Auditory function of llamas and alpacas was assessed objectively by means of brainstem auditory-evoked response audiometry (BAER) to establish the normal hearing range and to test the hypothesis of a correlation between blue eyes, white coat, and deafness. Sixty-three camelids were available for the study. Thirteen animals had blue irides; 1 animal had 1 blue and 1 pigmented iris. Wave latencies, amplitudes, and interpeak latencies were measured under general anesthetic. Click stimuli (dB [HL]) were delivered by an insert earphone. Four to five positive peaks could be detected; waves I, II, and V were reproducible; wave II appeared infrequently; and wave IV generally merged with wave V to form a complex. Peak latencies decreased and peak amplitudes increased as stimulus intensity increased. A hearing threshold level of 10-20 dB (HL) was proposed as the normal range in llamas and alpacas. None of the animals with pigmentation of coat and iris showed any degree of hearing impairment. Seven of the 10 blue-eyed, pure-white animals were bilaterally deaf and one of them was unilaterally deaf. However, 2 blue-eyed, white animals exhibited normal hearing ability. Three blue-eyed animals with pigmented coat did not show any hearing impairment. All white animals with normal iris pigmentation had normal auditory function; so did the 1 animal with 1 normal and 1 blue iris. The high frequency (78%) of bilaterally deaf animals with pure white coat and blue iris pigmentation supports the hypothesis of a correlation between pigmentation anomalies and congenital deafness in llamas and alpacas.     

Behavior of sheep fed babassu cake (Orbygnia speciosa) as a substitution for elephant grass silage

This study aimed to evaluate the behavior of sheep fed babassu cake as a substitution for elephant grass silage. The experiment was conducted at the Federal Rural University of Amazonia (Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia ‐ UFRA), Brazil, using 45 sheep housed in individual stalls, with unlimited access to feed and distributed in a completely randomized design with five treatments (0, 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50% inclusion of babassu cake) and nine replications. All of the treatments contained a roughage‐to‐concentrate ratio of 40:60. No differences were observed in the time spent feeding (P > 0.05), regardless of the source of roughage used. However, there was a reduction in the time spent in rumination (P < 0.05) and an increase in time spent idling (P < 0.05) when babassu cake was included in the diet. Although there was a reduction in the time spent chewing the ruminal bolus (P < 0.05), the total daily chewing time was the same for all animals (P > 0.05). However, the sheep fed babassu cake showed higher feeding and rumination efficiency (P < 0.05). Therefore, the substitution of elephant grass silage with babassu cake can be performed at up to 50% without compromising the total time spent eating and chewing, which allows increased feeding and rumination efficiency.