Regulation of irrigation canals

This article suggests and defines a characterisation of irrigation canal regulation methods, based on four criteria: considered variables (controlled, measured, and control action variables), logic of control, design method (structure and technique) and field implementation (configuration and device). Depending on the chosen criterion and partition rule, different classifications can be built from this characterisation. In conclusion, a structured characterisation table of the main published canal regulation methods is presented.Abbreviations ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers - CACG Compagnie d'Aménagement des Coteaux de Gascogne - CARA Compagnie d'Aménagement Rural d'Aquitaine - CARDD Canal Automation for Rapid Demand Deliveries - CEMAGREF Centre National du Machinisme Agricole, du Génie Rural, des Eaux et des Forêts - CNABRL Compagnie Nationale d'Aménagement du Bas — Rhône Languedoc - ELFLO Electronic Filter and Level Offset - FB Feedback or closed — loop control - FB _dn Feedback or closed-loop downstream control - FB _mi Feedback or closed-loop mixed control - FB _up Feedback or closed-loop upstream control - FF Feedforward or open-loop control - GPC Generalised Predictive Control - LQR Linear Quadratic Regulator - MIMO Multiple Inputs, Multiple Outputs - nI mO n Inputs, m Outputs - P Perturbation - P Estimation of perturbations - PID Proportional, Integral, Derivative Controller - PIR Contrôleur Proportionnel, Intégral, Retard (PI Delay controller) - Q Discharge in the canal - Q _dn Downstream discharge in the canal - Q _in Intermediate discharge in the canal - Q _up Upstream discharge in the canal - SCP Société du Canal de Provence - SISO Single Input, Single Output - U Control action variable - V Volume in a canal pool - V Elementary control action variable - w Regulator gate opening - Y Controlled variable - Y _c Target controlled variable - y Water elevation - y _dn Downstream water elevation of the pool (therefore upstream of a regulator) - y _in Intermediate water elevation in the pool - y _up Upstream water elevation of the pool (therefore downstream of a regulator) - Z Measured variable     

Soil-cement tiles for lining irrigation canals

Laboratory flume test was conducted to investigate the effect of flowing water an soil-cement canal tiles. For this purpose, soil-cement tiles were constructed from different soils at various cement contents. A flume, 3 metre long and 100 mm wide, was lined with the tiles and the lined bed was subjected to flow velocities of around 2 m/s for a period of 7 days. The tiles made from coarse-textured soil (sandy loam and silt loam) aggregates of 5 mm and from fine textured soil (clay loam) aggregates of 2 mm size were found to be intact and smooth even when constructed at a cement contents lower than that needed to meet the durability requirements.Attempts were also made to measure seepage losses of soil-cement tile linings. A channel section of approximately 1 metre length with a side slope of 1:1 was constructed in the laboratory with the tiles and seepage losses measured by the ponding method were found to be in the range of 0.00123–0.00343 m³/m²/day.The results clearly suggest that soil-cement tiles (irrespective of type of soil) made with 2 mm or less size of soil aggregates are erosion resistant and due to very little or negligible rates of seepage losses, the soil-cement tile lining of irrigation canals is expected to be very promising especially in the areas where irrigation water is costly.     

引黄滴灌水源中泥沙表面附生生物膜的分形特征

为了解决灌水器堵塞这个制约引黄滴灌技术应用和推广的关键问题,联合运用扫描电镜测试法和分形理论对黄河泥沙颗粒表面形貌进行了分析,结果表明:黄河泥沙颗粒表面形貌表现为以固体颗粒、微生物及其分泌的黏性胞外聚合物形成的复杂生物膜结构.黄河泥沙颗粒表面具有显著的分形和多重分形特征,简单分形维数虽然能从整体上表征颗粒物表面形貌的复杂性与不规则性,但未能刻画颗粒物局部奇异性的微观特征,而多重分形谱可以定量描述这种复杂泥沙颗粒形貌特征.黄河泥沙借助其巨大的表面积,吸附了大量的微生物,微生物分泌的胞外聚合物质量浓度高达276.08~360.68 mg/L,这就要求在控制引黄滴灌系统灌水器堵塞时,需要从以往单纯考虑泥沙颗粒物本身转变为综合考虑泥沙颗粒和微生物的耦合作用,寻求更为有效的堵塞控制策略.     

Analytical formulae for the response time of irrigation canals

Two analytical methods are discussed to determine the response time of an open canal system after a change in flow rate. The first method of canal routing is a simple method and is used to determine the filling time of short canal reaches. The prediction error increases for longer canal reaches as a result of neglecting the non-uniform flow conditions. The second method to determine the response time after a change in flow rate, the diffusion approximation, is a more accurate method and valid for canal reaches of any length.     

Regime behavior for alluvial stable Egyptian canals

The design of stable alluvial canals in Egypt is based on regime formulas. These formulas are valid for conditions prevailing before the construction of the High Aswan Dam (HAD), in which the solid suspension was more than 3500 p.p.m. As the regime of Egyptian canals has changed after the construction of HAD (Suspension solid became less than 100 p.p.m.), the design adopted by old regime equations is not satisfactory and a new design concept for the new regime is necessary.In 1982, investigations were carried out in Egypt based on field study on a group of stable alluvial irrigation channels and other collected data from Irrigation Districts and others, from which a series of design formulas for stable canals has been deduced.In this paper a continuation of regime studies have been emphasized by analyzing currently the available field data measurements on thirty alluvial stable channels in Egypt. A more useful relationships have been achieved which may give an approach for a better solution in the scope of stable canal design in Egypt.An investigation of regime theory verifies that the regime formulas of Egyptian Canals are only valid for the limited range of conditions upon which they are based.     

Improved 0–1 programming model for optimal flow scheduling in irrigation canals

An improved 0–1 programming model was presented for optimal flow regulation and optimal grouping and sequencing of outlets in irrigation distributaries, under restrictions of both the rotational period and the incoming flow rate into distributaries. The problem was solved using a commercially available 0–1 programming software package. The example computations indicated that this model could effectively provide a constant flow rate into the canal during most of the rotation period, and thus reduce the frequency of headgate operation. This formulation also minimized the accidental water wastage by appropriately sizing the canal cross-section.     

Evaluation of the sand-trap structures of the Wonji-Shoa sugar estate irrigation scheme, Ethiopia

A study was undertaken to evaluate the performance of sand-traps at Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate, Ethiopia. Inflow and outflow samples from the sand-traps and deposited sediment samples from the sand-traps, main canal, and reservoirs were taken. The samples were analyzed for sediment concentration and particle size distribution. During the study period, the sand-traps were performing satisfactorily in removing a good portion of suspended sediment (as high as 63% in case of sand-trap A and 54% in case of sand-trap B) in the week after flushing and they were performing poor (as low as −40% in case of sand-trap A and 6% in case of sand-trap B) when the sand-trap was running without flushing for about two months. Sediment particle size analyses of the samples indicated that the sand-traps retained almost all the sand fractions (90–95%) greater than 0.15 mm. Fifty to sixty percent of the sediment particles passing the sand-traps into the main canal was smaller than 0.002 mm. Sieve analyses of the bed materials taken from the sand-traps showed that particles up to medium gravel size (6.3–13.2mm) were entering the sand-traps and almost all were trapped. This result shows that performance of the sand-traps under the existing sediment load of Awash River was found to be satisfactory. However, it was observed that performance level of the sand-traps was very much dependent on the flushing interval of deposited sediment.     

Performance indicators for irrigation and drainage

This paper summarises the performance indicators currently used in the Research Program on Irrigation Performance (RPIP).Within this Program field data are measured and collected to quantify andtest about 40 multidisciplinary performance indicators. These indicatorscover water delivery, water use efficiency, maintenance, sustainability ofirrigation, environmental aspects, socio-economics and management. Theindicators now are sufficiently mature to be recommended for use inirrigation and drainage performance assessment.     

微囊藻衰败对沉积物中锑和砷迁移的影响

为了探究铜绿微囊藻对水环境的影响以及对沉积物中砷(As)和锑(Sb)迁移过程的影响,以沉积物/上覆水模拟柱为研究对象,监测不同浓度藻类衰亡过程中环境因素及物质浓度变化,分析藻类对沉积物中As和Sb迁移的影响.结果表明:在铜绿微囊藻活动的影响下,上覆水中溶解氧浓度和氧化还原电位均发生显著降低,为沉积物颗粒溶解提供了有利条件.渗透入沉积物中的铜绿微囊藻适应期间促进了As和Sb的迁移,二者的释放率均于投加藻细胞后第2天达到峰值,此时As在低藻组(LAD)和高藻组(HAD)中的最高释放率出现在沉积物-4 cm处,分别可达2.20和3.67,Sb的释放率在-2 cm处达到最大,分别为1.01和1.21,推测释放主要是由藻细胞在适应过程中对沉积物表面含As和Sb等营养物质的溶解作用导致的;藻类在衰亡阶段导致沉积物环境向还原性转化,此时As释放率再次增大,分别达到0.82和1.58,而Sb因还原性环境下的固化作用,释放率下降至0.13和0.12;HAD组中藻类活动对As和Sb迁移影响程度更大.研究表明沉积物中的藻类活动过程会影响As和Sb的迁移,为富营养化水体中重金属污染的控制提供依据.     

Using a hydraulic model to prioritize secondary canal maintenance inputs: results from Punjab,Pakistan

A computer-based hydraulic model,RAJBAH, was used to assess the utility of such models to assist and support canal system managers in planning and targeting maintenance activities on secondary canals. The work was conducted on Lagar distributary, a secondary channel off-taking from Upper Gugera Branch canal, Lower Chenab Canal system, Punjab, Pakistan. Measured discharges of off-takes and water levels along the distributary for premaintenance and post-maintenance periods were obtained. These data were used to assess the impact of actual maintenance inputs at specific locations identified in a model application in 1989. The predicted results of the model were satisfactorily close to conditions measured in the field. The study confirmed that suitably calibrated hydraulic simulation models can be effectively used in a decision support planning capacity to target and prioritize maintenance inputs for secondary canals in the irrigation systems of Pakistan's Punjab.     

An assessment of project management software as a decision support system for irrigation management in Morocco

The characteristics and potential of project management software as a tool for improved planning and management of on-going irrigation operations are assessed. A commercially available package was tested through use for the simulated planning of the close season maintenance campaign of major pump stations at a large scale irrigation scheme in Morocco. The software was found to be well suited to this planning activity and successfully helped resolve conflicts in terms of time and resources available. Its potential as a tool for sensitivity analysis and for monitoring and control was clearly demonstrated. The exercise had an immediate effect on management decision making and managers concerned have adopted the software for further trials. The approach is recommended as a means to enhance planning, communication and teamwork for suitable irrigation management operations, but will be most effective with the development of supporting databases to enhance the quality of planning data used.     

地表滴灌条件下水热耦合迁移数值模拟与验证

土壤水热分布状况是作物优质高产的关键环境条件之一，基于土壤水、热运动基本方程，结合地表滴灌水分运动特点，建立了地表滴灌水、热运移数学模型，利用HYDRUS-2D软件对构建的数学模型进行了数值求解，并对数值模拟得到的土壤水热值与田间实测数值进行了对比验证。结果表明， 所构建的数学模型对地表滴灌条件下的土壤水分运动和土壤温度变化及分布的动态变化具有较好的模拟效果；当土壤、气象以及灌水资料等可知时，利用该数学模型可以较准确地预测地表滴灌条件下水热耦合迁移与分布规律，模型可用来适时监测和调控地表滴灌条件下作物生长所需的土壤水、热环境条件。此外，数值模拟值和实测结果都显示，地表滴灌条件下上层土壤的水分和温度值较下层土壤易受到土壤蒸发和大气温度剧烈波动的影响。     

From on-farm solid-set sprinkler irrigation design to collective irrigation network design in windy areas

In this paper, a contribution to the design of collective pressurised irrigation networks in solid-set sprinkler-irrigated windy areas is presented. The methodology is based on guaranteeing minimum on-farm performance, using a historical hourly wind speed database and a ballistic solid-set irrigation simulation model. The proposed method was applied to the Montesnegros Irrigation District (central Ebro basin, Spain). The district irrigates an area of 3493 ha using an on-demand schedule. The average wind speed in the area is 2.8 m s⁻¹. An analysis of district water records showed that farmers often reduce water demand when the wind speed is high, but their irrigation decision making is limited by the capacity of the irrigation network and by the unpredictable character of local winds. Simulations were performed for 11 irrigation seasons, 2 triangular sprinkler spacings (18 m × 18 m and 18 m × 15 m), and 2 sprinkler models. The percentage of monthly suitable time for irrigation was determined for four management strategies. The first one was based on a wind speed threshold (3 m s⁻¹), while the other three were based on three levels (standard, relaxed and restrictive) of two irrigation performance parameters: the Christiansen Uniformity Coefficient (CU) and the Wind Drift and Evaporation Losses (WDEL). The standard strategy classified the time as suitable for irrigation when CU ≥ 84% and WDEL ≤ 20%. The thresholds limits of the irrigation parameters for the relaxed strategy were CU ≥ 80% and WDEL ≤ 25%. Finally, the restrictive strategy used thresholds of CU ≥ 90% and WDEL ≤ 15%. The suitable time for the first strategy (56%) was always lower than for the standard and the relaxed strategies (with respective average values of 75 and 86%), and higher than for the restrictive strategy (30%). In order to design the collective network, the hydrant operating time was equalled to the suitable time for irrigation. The differences in the cost of the collective network plus the on-farm equipment were particularly relevant between the restrictive strategy and the other three. Differences in suitable operating time were clear between sprinkler spacings, and less evident between sprinkler models. The application of the proposed methodology may be limited by the availability of historical wind speed records and CU estimates for different combinations of sprinkler models, sprinkler spacings and wind speed.     

Satellite remote sensing in irrigation

Data on flows in irrigation and drainage canals and data on climate, crops, and cropped areas are essential for the management of irrigation systems. Only part of these data can be collected with satellite remote sensing (SRS). This paper discusses the possibilities for the practical use of SRS data in the management of irrigation systems. Satellite remote sensing images are more useful for intra- and inter-seasonal monitoring, with a time horizon of months or years, than for use in day-to-day management of irrigation schemes: either the operation of the system cannot be changed quickly, or the operation would require a more frequent input of SRS data than is at present feasible.     

涌泉根灌技术研究与应用

提出了一种新型涌泉根灌灌水方法,研究设计了一种灌水器,实现了直接将灌溉水输送到植物根系部位的研究目标,研制的涌泉根灌灌水器流态指数小于0.5,属紊流范畴.为了测得不同节水灌溉方式的应用效果,在陕北山地5年生枣树实施了管灌、滴灌和涌泉根灌等工程38.67hm^2,对3种不同灌水方法的经济效益作了分析.结果表明,与不灌溉相比,管灌、滴灌和涌泉根灌的净增收入分别为4707.70,8446.00和10926.00元/hm^2;管灌、滴灌和涌泉根灌每方灌溉水产值分别为1.90,11.30和14.60元/m3.涌泉根灌与滴灌相比,年成本降低2030元/hm^2,净收入增加2480元/hm^2,每方灌溉水产值提高3.30元/m3;涌泉根灌与管灌相比,年成本降低743.30元/hm^2,净收入增加6218.30元/hm^2,每方灌溉水产值提高12.70元/m3.不同节水灌溉方式均使得枣园净收入大幅度提高,尤其是涌泉根灌方式,净增值率高达235.0%.建议在山地经济林果中大面积推广应用涌泉根灌技术.     

变量技术在精准灌溉上的应用

本文通过对精准灌溉系统基本概念的论述，提出变量技术是精准灌溉的技术关键。阐述了变量技术与设备在圆形和平移式喷灌机上的应用，并指出在应用中应注意的问题。     

滴灌技术在农业节水灌溉中的应用探讨

滴灌是农业灌溉技术的一项革命性变革。这种灌溉方式,对节省灌溉用水、实现高产、控制杂草等有它独到之处。本文对滴灌进行了简述并分析了滴灌技术在我国节水灌溉中的应用,对其优势、节水效果等方面的进行了分析探讨,为我国节水灌溉的发展提供借鉴。     

撒施肥料一维畦灌地表水流与溶质运移模型构建与验证

模拟撒施肥料下的一维畦灌地表水流与溶质运移过程可为采用先进的畦灌液体施肥方式提供对比依据。该文基于湍流理论垂向流速线性与对数分布规律及不可压缩流体力学连续方程,构造沿畦长及任意垂向断面的非均布流速场和溶质浓度场,建立起撒施肥料下的一维畦灌地表水流与溶质运移模型,并利用典型畦灌施肥试验结果,检验该模型的模拟效果。结果表明,建立的模型不仅具有在撒施肥料状况下较好模拟地表水流运动和溶质浓度时间变化过程的能力,还具备较佳的水量和溶质质量守恒性,从而为评价撒施肥料下的畦灌施肥系统性能及与其它施肥方式下的畦灌施肥系统性能对比,提供了实用的数值模拟工具。     

涌泉根灌湿润体水氮运移特性试验研究

在陕北米脂山地微灌枣树示范基地原状土上进行了涌泉根灌肥液入渗试验,研究了湿润体特征值的变化规律及水氮运移特性.〖JP+1〗结果表明：涌泉根灌入渗能力随肥液质量浓度增大而增大,累积入渗量与入渗时间的关系符合Kostiakov模型;竖直剖面的水平和垂直方向上的湿润锋运移速度均随肥液质量浓度增大而增大,并与时间均呈良好的幂函数关系.肥液质量浓度越大,涌泉根灌相同时间内湿润体的湿润深度越深,相同位置处的土壤质量含水率越大.清水与不同肥液质量浓度的涌泉根灌土壤平均质量含水率分布规律类似,肥液质量浓度越大,相同土层深度的质量含水率越大.在一定施肥条件下,涌泉根灌肥液入渗相同深度处NO-3-N与NH+4-N质量比均随肥液质量浓度增大而增大,经过水分再分布,均于土层深度70 cm处接近本底值.     

中国喷灌机现状与发展思考

基于水利统计数据,分析了近10 a中国节水灌溉应用分布,发现东北以喷灌为主,西北以微灌为主,华北以低压管灌为主,华东以渠道灌溉为主,具有明显的区域特征,节水灌溉仍有50%发展空间,喷灌技术占比与欧美国家相比仍然偏低.总结回顾了中国喷灌机发展历程、研究进展和发展趋势.从国家政策引导、智慧农业发展、农业种植结构变化和盐碱地耕地改造4个方面,分析了在资源环境约束挑战下中国喷灌机的发展机遇.阐明了喷灌的优势和不可替代作用,指出随着中国高标准农田建设及农业规模化经营稳步推进,喷灌机性能及功能不断增强,使以往喷灌的局限性逐步转变成发展优势.最后从补齐农业全程机械化短板、水肥药一体化作业新模式和无人化智能化方面展望了中国喷灌机未来发展前景.