Remunerating nature conservation in central European forests: scope and limits of the Faustmann–Hartman approach

The elementary method based on Faustmann's analysis and extended by Hartman is used for the design of payment schemes inciting forest owners to manage their assets in a way more conducive to nature conservation. It is not aimed at extending the elementary theory but rather, to elicit its most important empirical implications. It is taken for granted that the conservation benefit of a forest increases linearly with time. Linearity is not only in sufficient agreement with ecological facts but also makes it easy to derive important conditions, in particular the minimal payment inducing owners never to harvest. The theory is applied to a German beech forest model (Fagus sylvatica). It is found that inciting owners to delay cutting cannot be recommended. The instrument should be used for the objective of abandoning cutting altogether which, however, demands that the conservation objective, as expressed in its present value, is granted a very high value by society. In the sequel, various aspects as to the scheme's practicability are discussed, including the need to capitalise annual payments into one single sum, the choice of a discount rate, the allowance for current costs in forestry and the likely approval of payments in the political arena. Although the discussion identifies several obstacles to the practical application of the scheme, there appears to exist no principal reason why a conservation policy based on the Faustmann–Hartman approach should not work in forestry.     

Overview of restoration and management practices in the degraded landscapes of the Sahelian and dryland forests and woodlands of East and southern Africa§

The highest deforestation and forest degradation rates in Africa occur in the dry forests and woodlands where pressure for land is increasing, poverty is rampant, livelihood options are few and climate change effects are severe. This paper examines factors that cause land and forest degradation in the Sahel and dry forests and woodlands of eastern and southern Africa and highlights some successful restoration practices, technologies and approaches. In the Sahel, enclosures are used to protect young growing trees while in East Africa enclosures are implemented on degraded land as a mechanism for environmental rehabilitation with a clear biophysical impact. The choice of techniques for rehabilitating specific degraded areas depends first on the priorities and management objectives of stakeholders followed by the costs and benefits associated with available rehabilitation techniques and the economic, social, and environmental values of the land resources in their current and desired future states. In the Sahel, sustainable land management is considered to be an imperative for their sustainable development and the practices include soil and water conservation activities and structures. In all regions, natural forest rehabilitation has used both natural and assisted regeneration to promote the growth of especially indigenous species through coppice regrowth and root suckers rather than seeds. Assisted regeneration was especially prevalent in the Sahel where indigenous tree species have been identified to dominate the degraded sites during early stages of secondary forest succession. The success of any rehabilitation activities depends on community-based natural resources management. In addition, the forest policies and their related policies need to be enabling in order to address issues of concern, including (1) the full participation of communities, (2) clear land and tree tenure and (3) equitable benefit sharing.     

Forest governance and sustainability pathways in the absence of a comprehensive national forest policy — The case of New Zealand

A ‘pathways’ and ‘framings’ approach derived from Leach et al. (2010) is used to examine forest sustainability policy in New Zealand. The country has had no comprehensive forest policy since the 1990s and indeed no longer a forest service or its equivalent. Instead ‘forest’ preservation, policy, and monitoring functions are carried out by the Department of Conservation, Ministry of Primary Industry and Ministry of Environment. Exotic plantation forests have themselves been sold off to the private sector and some aspects of planting and harvesting are regulated by the Resource Management Act. Even in this Neo-Liberal setting, and similar to Leach et al.'s work in completely different contexts, policy responses have tended to be oriented towards ‘stability’ and ‘resilience’ types of forest sustainability. Three forest sustainability pathways are evident, directed towards preservation of indigenous biodiversity, economic development without adverse environmental impacts, and monitoring of environmental quality. In some ways the current ‘New Zealand forest governance model’ is an improvement on its predecessor but it seems unlikely to be mobile in a policy sense, resting as it does on the existence a relatively large area of indigenous forest and a large exotic plantation resource where the latter provides all timber needs.     

Herb layer vegetation of south Swedish beech and oak forests—effects of management and soil acidity during one decade

Effects of forest management and soil acidity on herb layer vegetation were studied after 10 years on 190 permanent plots in south Swedish beech (Fagus sylvatica) and oak (Quercus robur) forests. Species richness generally increased with management intensity, mainly due to establishment of ruderal species from the seed bank. Species richness of the typical forest flora was unaffected by management. Moderate management of oak stands favoured several species which are commonly found in semi-natural pastures. Classification and ordination of the data showed that the main floristic gradient within Swedish beech and oak forest vegetation is related to soil acidity. Species richness of the typical forest flora was strongly positively correlated with soil pH in beech forests, but this correlation was weaker in oak forests. The number of herbaceous plants with a broader habitat range increased with pH only in the oak forest plots. Long term changes in the forest environment, which may affect the vegetation, are the decline of grazing 150-50 years ago and soil acidification mainly caused by atmospheric pollutants during the last 50 years. In the one-decade perspective of this study, however, we did not find a general trend towards a more acid-tolerant flora. Neither could we find a general decrease of pasture species in currently ungrazed oak stands. The results indicate that most typical forest plants are well adapted to and partly depend on occurrence of canopy gaps and soil disturbance. If canopy thinning is followed by periods of canopy closure the characteristic shade tolerant flora of Swedish beech and oak forests may be able to persist as long as soil chemical limits of existence are not exceeded.     

Can the structure of dormant cambium and the widths of phloem and xylem increments be used as indicators for tree vitality?

We investigated the structure and width of the dormant cambium and of the increments of phloem and xylem of Quercus robur to estimate their potential as indicators for tree vitality. The samples were taken from three woodlands, two in Slovenia [Krakovo forest (KRA) and Murska Suma (MUS)] and one in Croatia [Kobiljak (KOB)], with reported tree decline. The number of dormant cells seems to reflect the initial capacity of the cambium to accomplish cell division. With the exception of two trees at KRA, cell production was always higher on the xylem side than on the phloem side. The annual phloem increments were narrower, less variable among trees and with clear lower and upper limits. With increased cambial cell productivity, the share of the xylem in the total annual radial increment increased following a curvilinear function. In trees with an annual radial increment >3.5 mm, the xylem size represented more than 90 % of the total radial growth. The anatomical variables analyzed show that the most limiting environmental conditions seem to prevail at KRA, whereas the conditions at MUS seem to be most favorable in terms of radial growth. Analysis of the width and structure of xylem and phloem increments, the number of dormant cambial cells and their inter-relationships can provide additional information on the vitality of oaks.     

A giant tree stand in the West Carpathians—An exception or a relic of formerly widespread mountain European forests?

In Europe, remnants of formerly widespread natural mixed forests are rare. We analyzed an exceptionally tall tree stand with a very high wood volume in Hron?okovský grúň reserve, covering 55.2 ha in Slovenské Rudohorie Mountains in central Slovakia (48°43′N and 19°35′E) between 730 and 1050 m a.s.l. We compared our data to other natural stands to see if the growing stock and tree height were higher in Hron?okovský grúň.     

Hidden in the woods? Meaning,determining, and practicing of ‘common welfare’ in the case of the German public forests

This article addresses the German debate on the issue of the common welfare designation of public forests. In the first part, drawing on two case studies, the political discourse on the issue is introduced. Two major competing ‘story lines’ can be made out that are both based on a long tradition of controversially discussed concepts of regulatory forest policy. While they both emphasise that common welfare services in forestry run counter to profit orientation, they fundamentally differ with regard to the consequences for forest policy, e.g., considering the degree of state intervention. Afterwards, an overview on the scientific debate on common welfare in the German context is given, and different concepts of common welfare determination are distinguished. Existing approaches of common welfare determination in German forest policy are related to these concepts and discussed. It is argued that the common welfare designation of the public forest is only insufficiently implemented by the actual governance arrangements. Based on this consideration, eventually, the implementation of a procedural concept of common welfare operationalisation in Germany’s public forests at the local level is proposed. While such a concept will not solve all complex problems related to the determination of common welfare in public forestry, it would notably contribute to a more operational definition of common welfare in public forestry and a more informed public debate on the issue.     

Trends of tree growth in Swedish forests 1953–1992: An analysis based on sample trees from the national forest inventory

Average tree height and basal area growth for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in Sweden were studied as functions of species, age, stand density, location and year of inventory in the period 1953–1992, on the basis of sample tree data from the National Forest Inventory. A highly significant annual increase of both height and basal area growth was found, of the magnitude 0.5–0.8%, during the 40 yr period. Possible reasons for the trend are discussed. The altered way of cutting in the early 1950s, from selective cutting to clear felling and thinning from below, has had a large impact. Also, improved regeneration methods, nitrogen fertilization and ditching have increased growth. The increasing atmospheric deposition of nitrogen is another possible factor.     

Similar carbon density of natural and planted forests in the Lüliang Mountains,China

Key message

The carbon density was not different between natural and planted forests, while the biomass carbon density was greater in natural forests than in planted forests. The difference is due primarily to the larger carbon density in the standing trees in natural forests compared to planted forests (at an average age of 50.6 and 15.7 years, respectively).

Context

Afforestation and reforestation programs might have noticeable effect on carbon stock. An integrated assessment of the forest carbon density in mountain regions is vital to evaluate the contribution of planted forests to carbon sequestration.

Aims

We compared the carbon densities and carbon stocks between natural and planted forests in the Lüliang Mountains region where large-scale afforestation and reforestation programs have been implemented. The introduced peashrubs (Caragana spp.), poplars (Populus spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), and native Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis) were the four most common species in planted forests. In contrast, the deciduous oaks (Quercus spp.), Asia white birch (Betula platyphylla), wild poplar (Populus davidiana), and Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis) dominated in natural forests.

Methods

Based on the forest inventory data of 3768 sample plots, we estimated the values of carbon densities and carbon stocks of natural and planted forests, and analyzed the spatial patterns of carbon densities and the effects of various factors on carbon densities using semivariogram analysis and nested analysis of variance (nested ANOVA), respectively.

Results

The carbon density was 123.7 and 119.7 Mg ha^?1 for natural and planted forests respectively. Natural and planted forests accounted for 54.8% and 45.2% of the total carbon stock over the whole region, respectively. The biomass carbon density (the above- and belowground biomass plus dead wood and litter biomass carbon density) was greater in natural forests than in planted forests (22.5 versus 13.2 Mg ha^?1). The higher (lower) spatial carbon density variability of natural (planted) forests was featured with a much smaller (larger) range value of 32.7 km (102.0 km) within which a strong (moderate) spatial autocorrelation could be observed. Stand age, stand density, annual mean temperature, and annual precipitation had statistically significant effects on the carbon density of all forests in the region.

Conclusion

No significant difference was detected in the carbon densities between natural and planted forests, and planted forests have made a substantial contribution to the total carbon stock of the region due to the implementation of large-scale afforestation and reforestation programs. The spatial patterns of carbon densities were clearly different between natural and planted forests. Stand age, stand density, temperature, and precipitation were important factors influencing forest carbon density over the mountain region.

     

Towards a donut regime? Domestic actors,climatization, and the hollowing-out of the international forests regime in the Anthropocene

Political responses to global deforestation, as a defining characteristic of the so-called Anthropocene, are a key field for scholarship and policy analysis. In the past decade, research has proliferated on global forest governance and the international forest regime (IFR), yet the academic literature on the IFR is just as dispersed and fragmented as the IFR itself. An emerging body of literature now suggests the key role of domestic actors in international forest governance, questioning an implicit top-down logic of global arrangements. In spite of all the resources at its disposal, the IFR is characterised by complexity, fragmentation and ineffectiveness regarding its main objective of reducing global deforestation.Based on an extensive literature review, the authors’ long-standing observations and selected own empirical findings, this review article aims to provide an updated historical account of the IFR and proposes a from-below approach for analysing the IFR from the viewpoint of domestic actors. In this bottom-up perspective the IFR is conceptualised as a set of resources that key domestic actors can pick and choose from according to their interests and in the light of domestic politics.Using illustrative empirical examples from recent research and own observations, the article finds that the IFR is being hollowed-out by (i) the growing policy links between forests and climate change - a process referred to as “climatization”- and (ii) domestic influences. We conclude that our from-below approach is instrumental in further explaining why deforestation has largely continued, despite the emergence of the IFR some three decades ago. Our findings about the importance of domestic actors illustrate that global governance arrangements cannot operate effectively, relative to their ambitious mandate and for tackling policy issues relating to the Anthropocene, unless they are granted adequate resources and support by key domestic actors.     

May the Goddess of the Changjiang River Stay Forever——Review of the protection of Chinese river dolphinss and cowfisheses

Withitsuniquelyfavorableecologicalenvironment,theChangjiangRiverbreedstheChineseriverdolphinsandcow-fishes.Thedistributionoftwocetaceananimalsinthesameriverisrarelyseenintheotherriversoftheearth,highlightingthedistinctivecuttingedgesoftheChangjiangRiverin…     

Landscape pattern and fragmentation of natural secondary forests in the eastern mountainous region, northeast China： A case study of Mao＇ershan forests in Heilongjiang Province

Mao‘ershan region is a representative natural secondary forested region in the eastern mountainous region, northeast of China.Under the support of ARC/INFO and GIS technology, the landscape shape and fragment indices of Mao‘ershan experimental plantation were studied by combining the forest type map (1:10000), which was drawn from the aerial photographs (1999), field investigation (1999) and soil utilized map (1:10000). The results showed that the shape index and shape fragment index of natural landscape were higher than those of artificial landscapes and landscape patch fragment index depended on the number of patches. The natural forest had complex shape,suffering little jamming, and its shape index was higher than that of artificial forest. The manual controlled landscape (e.g. nursery, cropland and cutting blank) had regular shape, and its shape index was smaller. The fragment index of patches in natural forest was higher than that of artificial forest. The soft broad-leaved had the highest fragment index of patch amount.     

Rehabilitation of Nothofagus pumilio forests in Chilean Patagonia: can fencing and planting season effectively protect against exotic European hare browsing?

New Forests - In forests affected by heavy fires and continuous grazing of exotic herbivorous mammal species, Nothofagus pumilio (lenga) cannot recover naturally. The main factors that hinder the...     

Evaluating the deployment of alternative species in planted conifer forests as a means of adaptation to climate change—case studies in New Zealand and Scotland

Context

A strategy widely proposed for increasing the resilience of forests against the impacts of projected climate change is to increase the number of species planted to spread and reduce the risks from a range of biotic and abiotic hazards.

Aims

We tested this strategy in two case study areas in planted conifer forests in New Zealand and Scotland.

Methods

The performance of the major tree species and an alternative was compared: radiata pine and Eucalyptus fastigata in New Zealand and Sitka spruce and Scots pine in Scotland. The process-based model 3-PG2S was used to simulate the effects of projected climate change at the end of this century, with and without CO₂ fertilisation, upon productivity and financial returns. The effects of an abiotic hazard and two biotic hazards were considered.

Results

Under the current climate, the major species outperform alternatives in nearly all circumstances. However, with climate change, their relative performance alters. In New Zealand, planting of E. fastigata becomes more attractive particularly when various hazards and elevated CO₂ concentrations are considered. In Scotland, Scots pine becomes more attractive than Sitka spruce at lower interest rates.

Conclusions

The major plantation species in both countries are well suited to the current climate, but deployment of alternative species and/or breeds can help to adapt these planted forests to the impacts of climate change.     

Effect of resin‐top disease caused by Peridermium pini on the volume and value of Pinus sylvestris saw timber and pulpwood

The role of the resin‐top disease caused by Peridermium pini in volume and value losses to Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was surveyed in two heavily infected stands in northern Finland. Of the Scots pines, 26% were infected by the disease. Peridermium pini caused 2% volume losses to saw timber trees and 3% volume losses to pulpwood trees in the stem‐lesion class and 10% and 14% in the dead‐top class, respectively. The disease caused saw timber volume losses to saw timber trees of 34% and 22% in the stem‐lesion and dead‐top class, respectively. However, saw timber volume losses increased the pulpwood volume in both disease classes. The disease reduced the marketing value of saw timber trees and pulpwood trees by 18% and 3% in the stem‐lesion class and by 15% and 14% in the dead‐top class.     

Spatial connectivity and distribution of landscape type in the natural secondary forests of eastern mountainous region,northeast China—a case study of Mao'ershan region in Heilongjiang Province

Mao'ershan region is representative in the natural secondary forested region of the eastern mountainous region, northeast China. The landscape nearest neighbor index and landscape connectivity index were calculated with ARC/INFO software for Mao'ershan region. The spatial distribution of the landscape of the region was analyzed. The results showed that the landscape connectivity index of non-woodland was significantly higher than that of woodland. The landscape connectivity index of natural forest was nearly equal to zero, which means its fragmentation degree is high. The nearest neighbor index of plantation was lower than that of natural forest and non-forestland. Among the man-made forests, the distance index of the coniferous mixed plantation is the lowest, and its pattern is nearly glomeration. The landscape pattern of natural forest presented nearly random distribution. Among non-forest land, the distance index of cut blank was the lowest, and its pattern was also nearly glomeration. Foundation item: This paper was supported by the Key Project of State Department of Science Technology (2002BA515B040). Biography: LI SHu-juan (1977), female. Lecture in Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, P. R. China. Responsible editor: Zhu Hong     

The importance of canopy-derived dissolved and particulate organic matter (DOM and POM) — comparing throughfall solution from broadleaved and coniferous forests

? Dissolved organic matter (DOM) and its main constituents carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (DON) represent an important part of the C and N cycles in forest ecosystems. Although many investigations have been addressing this issue, the knowledge on particulate organic matter (0.45 μm < POM < 500 μm) dynamics, its origin and involvement in organic matter cycling in forest ecosystems is still imperfect.

? In this paper, we report on dissolved and particulate organic carbon and nitrogen fractions in throughfall solutions collected from a broadleaved and coniferous forest stand in Central Germany. Over a period of 2.5 y (2005–2007) we followed the concentrations and fluxes of DOM and POM at a mature beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and a Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) forest site. Bulk and throughfall precipitation were sampled in weekly (2005) and fortnightly (2006–2007) intervals and analyzed for dissolved (< 0.45 μm, filtered) and total (< 500 μm, unfiltered) amounts of organic carbon (DOC, TOC, POC) and nitrogen (TN, DN, PON, NO₃-N) species. Proportions of particulate organic C and N were determined by difference between total and dissolved fractions.

? Under spruce, throughfall concentrations of most C and N fractions were twice as high as under beech. At both sites, concentrations and fluxes were significantly higher during the growing than the dormant season. At the broadleaved site, 80% of the annual fluxes of the DOC and TOC and 70% of the DN and TN were released during the growing season, compared to 60% for C and N at the coniferous site. POC under beech contributes with up to 30% to TOC compared to less than 20% at the spruce site.

? We suggest that pollen deposition, insect excretions and accumulated organic matter mobilised by dry/wet precipitation patterns play a supreme role for the formation of DOM and POM in forest canopies. The study demonstrates that the canopy is an important source for POM. Dynamics of DOM and POM are mainly driven by tree species effects and seasonality as well as by biotic agents.