Biosecure Shrimp Feeds and Feeding Practices: Guidelines for Future Development

For the purposes of this paper, biosecure shrimp feeds and on‐farm feeding strategies refer to the “feed, whether live, fresh, or formulated, and the management of the feed on the farm, should not be an entry point of potential pathogens to the shrimp and/or to the culture system.” The paper reviews the different feeds commonly used for the production of farmed shrimp and discusses their potential risks from a disease perspective, including the use of live hatchery and nursery feeds, the use of live and/or fresh food organisms for the production of broodstock, and the use of dry formulated shrimp feeds for shrimp growout operations. In addition, the paper discusses the critical role played by feed‐processing techniques for the pasteurization and destruction of pathogens within shrimp feeds and the need for nutritionists to formulate feeds for optimal nutrition and health, and not just for optimal growth. The importance of the development and implementation of good on‐farm feed management practices by farmers is discussed, including the prohibition of the top‐dressing of pelleted feeds on farm by farmers with unapproved feed additives such as antibiotics. Finally, the paper discusses the responsibilities of farmers, feed manufacturers, and traders regarding the development and use of recommended biosecure shrimp feeds and feeding practices.     

Possible Potassium and Magnesium Limitations for Shrimp Survival and Production in Low‐Salinity,Pond Waters in Thailand

Low‐salinity waters of inland shrimp ponds in Nakhon Nayok, Chachoengsao, Prachin Buri, and Samut Sakhon Provinces of Thailand often had concentrations of potassium and magnesium below those expected for normal seawater diluted to the same salinity. However, in Samut Sakhon Province – where the sampling area was nearer the coast – ponds typically had higher concentrations of these two cations than did ponds in the other three provinces. Studies of inland, shrimp ponds at Banglane in Nakhon Pathom Province revealed that magnesium additions to maintain a target concentration near 100 mg/L resulted in greater (P < 0.05) shrimp survival, size, and production than obtained in control ponds. Although potassium additions to ponds (75 mg/L target concentration) did not improve shrimp survival or production, the control ponds had potassium concentration higher than those previously reported for ponds in Alabama where potassium treatment was highly beneficial to shrimp survival and production. A study conducted using laboratory, soil‐water systems with soil from one site did not remove potassium and magnesium from the water, while soil from two other sites removed potassium and magnesium from water – but at different rates.     

杂色蛤与对虾混养技术

赣榆县1999年对虾(Penaeus chinensis)与杂色蛤(Ruditapes variegata)混养面积380 hm2,收获杂色蛤4 800 t,对虾125 t,取得了较好的经济效益和社会效益.本项生态农业技术模式适宜在硬泥或沙泥底质的虾塘泥滩推广,其技术要点如下:     

Pond Bottom Management at Commercial Shrimp Farms in Chantaburi Province,Thailand

Most shrimp farmers in Chantaburi Province, Thailand, use water jets to dislodge sediment from empty pond bottoms, and wastewater is held for sedimentation before discharge into natural waters. Other pond bottom management practices used by a few farmers are sediment excavation, leave sediment but till entire pond bottom, and no mechanical treatment. All four methods of pond bottom treatment are followed by sun drying for 30 d. Soil organic carbon concentration in ponds following dry‐out seldom exceeded 2%. Although shrimp production in 24 ponds supplied by the same source of water was negatively correlated with increasing soil organic carbon concentration (r = ?0.582), this observation does not confirm a causative relationship. Moreover, in trials conducted at Burapha University, Chantaburi Campus, bottom soil organic matter concentration following dry‐out differed little irrespective of treatment method. Lower soil moisture concentration revealed that dry‐out was more complete with sediment removal than without, but better dry‐out resulted in lower soil pH. Removal of sediment by excavation or flushing is expensive, and natural dry‐out combined with liming and occasional sediment removal should be investigated as a less expensive and more environment‐friendly alternative to removing sediment after each crop.     

Using Experimental Microcosms in Shrimp Research: The Growth-Enhancing Effect of Shrimp Pond Water

After preliminary six week experiments showed that shrimp pond effluent from an intensive culture growout pond had the capacity to nearly double shrimp growth in laboratory tanks, an 18 day experiment was designed to determine if similar results occurred in the presence of high quality feeds. The results presented here corroborate the hypothesis that autochthonous factors in shrimp pond water stimulate shrimp growth. These results revealed that performance of currently available shrimp feeds is greatly improved in the presence of pond effluent, regardless of feed quality. Increased feed performance did not appear to be an artifact of supplemental feed availability in pond effluent. The implications from these experiments are that, even in intensive culture systems (above 40 shrimp per m²), in-situ sources of nutrition play an important role in shrimp growth.     

南通地区海蜇、斑节对虾和缢蛏的生态混养

在江苏省南通市水深2m、面积467km~2的池塘中,每667m~2放养伞径5cm的海蜇Rhopilemae sculentum200只、全长1cm左右的斑节对虾Penaeus monodon 4000尾和4 000粒/kg的缢蛏Sinonovacula constrzcta 20万粒。经饲养,海蜇产量为855kg/km~2、斑节对虾67kg/km~2、缢蛏145kg/km~2,总产量为1 067kg/km~2,产值为8 600元,利润为6 057元,显示出较高的生态和社会效益。     

Accumulation of Chemical Elements in Texas Shrimp Pond Soils

Abstract— This study evaluated changes in chemistry of shrimp pond soils over one production cycle. Several soil nutrients, pH, organic matter, and total soluble salts were analyzed in the upper 10 cm of pond-bottom soil on two Texas shrimp farms in two consecutive years. Soil concentrations of S, P, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Mn, and Zn increased from one year to the next, S increased by 400 ppm. Organic matter did not accumulate. The pH decreased in all pond soils, owing perhaps to the oxidation of organic matter and/or inorganic compounds. There was no statistical difference in shrimp yield between the two consecutive years. These results indicated that the accumulation of S and soluble salts derived from seawater and feed should be monitored and evaluated to prevent excessive chemical element loading of pond soil and discharge water.     

普通虾池对虾无公害(Non-Pollution)健康养殖试验

为寻求无公害健康养殖的途径,我们进行了普通虾池无公害对虾健康养殖试验。经过114d的养殖,试验池塘收获成虾总产量27,505kg,平均单产8,595．31kg／hm^2;对比池塘收获成虾总产量12,157kg,平均单产7,598．13kg／hm^2;试验池塘总产值66．01万元,获利27．04万元,平均每亩池塘获利5,633元;试验池塘总产值26．75万元,获利7．1万元,平均每hm^2池塘获利44,370元。试验池塘与对比池塘相比,平均单位面积获利增长90．43％。试验池塘由于采用了无公害养殖技术,成品虾各项规定指标均符合食品卫生安全标准,达到无公害食品要求。     

Microbial Community Analysis of Water, Foregut, and Hindgut during Growth of Pacific White Shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, in Closed-System Aquaculture

In closed recirculating systems, a particulate matter consisting of bacteria, algae, fungi, and detritus develops spontaneously. This microbial floc can serve as a high‐protein food source for finfish and shellfish and has the potential to supplement the protein required in shrimp feed. To advance the use of microbial floc as a feed supplement, it is necessary to manipulate its microbial components, which requires thorough characterization of the bacterial components. Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, were raised in a closed recirculating system, and water was compared to the contents of shrimp foreguts and hindguts. Water consistently contained less microbial biomass than did shrimp guts, but 16S rDNA sequences indicated that water was more diverse than shrimp guts. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rDNA sequences retrieved from water and shrimp foregut grouped these sequences into various unrelated generic clusters. Fatty acid analysis demonstrated that shrimp feed was not a major contributor of microbial fatty acids to shrimp tanks, as the feed mostly contained polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are typically found only in eukaryotes. It is hoped that elucidating more details about the various components of microbial floc will help in understanding its development and will lead to its use as a high‐protein feed supplement.     

分段养殖模式在凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannamei)养殖过程中的应用

通过测定凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannamei)生长性能和监测池塘水质变化,研究分段养殖模式在对虾养殖过程中的应用价值.养殖实验在6口池塘内(0.267 hm2/口)进行,首先在其中2口池塘内进行对虾的中间培育,养殖密度为300×104尾/hm2.经过36 d和48 d的中间培育后,将对虾先后转移到其他4口池塘内,养殖密度为60×104尾/hm2,分别记为T1和T2组.剩余的对虾继续养殖在中间培育池塘内,记为C组.结果显示,经过分段养殖的T1和T2组对虾,在分池养殖阶段7d内,生长速度均明显增加,其特定生长率(SGR)分别达到9.36 ％/d和6.76 ％/d;养殖期间,T1组具有最大的SGR (9.36 ％/d)和饲料投喂量,然而其饲料系数(FCR) (1.053)高于T2组(0.822);经过分段养殖的对虾FCR均低于C组(1.082).在分池养殖阶段的大部分时间,T2组对虾的SGR高于T1组;C组NH4+-N、NO2-N和Chl-a浓度低于T1组和T2组,而颗粒物含量(TPM)和总磷(TP)高于T1组和T2组;T2组Chl-a含量明显高于T1组和C组.结果显示,经过48 d中间培育后,即对虾体重约为2 g时进行分池养殖仍可保证对虾在较长时间内保持较大的生长速度,对于饲料的节约具有重要意义.由于分池养殖阶段具有较多的饲料投喂,经过36 d中间培育后的对虾具有最大产量.分池养殖池塘内饲料投喂少于全期养殖,有利于养殖系统的稳定,然而单位时间内投喂量增加则会影响水质.分段养殖模式在提高分池养殖阶段对虾的生长速度和保持水质稳定方面具有重要的应用价值.     

Chemical and Physical Properties of Shrimp Pond Bottom Soils in Ecuador

Chemical and physical analyses were conducted on bottom soil samples from 74 brackish-water ponds representing 40 shrimp farms in Ecuador. Most ponds had soils with pH > 6 and total carbon concentrations < 2.5%. Carbon was mostly in organic form, for the average concentration of carbonate carbon was 0.06%. The C: N ratio was 8 to 10 in soils with < 2.5% carbon. In ponds built in former mangrove areas, soil carbon was > 2.5% and C: N ratios were 25 to 30. Ponds soils in former mangrove areas also tended to be high in total sulfur and low in pH. Lack of correlation between carbon and sulfur in mangrove soils suggested that most of the sulfur was inorganic and presumably in sulfides. Soils containing above 0.4% free carbonate (as equivalent CaCO₃) had pH values > 7. Although carbonate concentration was a major factor controlling soil pH, calcium hardness of pond waters was strongly influenced by salinity (and calcium) in the water supply. Total phosphorus concentrations averaged 898 mg/kg, and dilute acid extractable phosphorus usually accounted for 25–35% of the total. Concentrations of major cations and minor elements varied greatly in soils and exhibited ranges of up to three orders of magnitude. Contrary to opinions of shrimp producers, many pond soils in Ecuador are not acidic and few soils have a high organic matter content. Proper use of soil and water testing could greatly improve the efficiency of liming and other soil management practices.     

Changes in the Concentration of Nutrients and Other Chemical Properties of Shrimp Pond Soils as a Function of Pond Use

Several soil nutrients, pH, organic carbon, and total soluble salts from the upper 10 cm of soil samples from 72 shrimp ponds in Texas were analyzed. Large increases in sediment concentrations of C, N, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, nitrate, and water-soluble salts was observed after one production cycle, followed by an asymptotic increase in older ponds. An approximately linear increase in soil concentration of S and P with pond age was observed. The pH showed a marked decrease in ponds that had been used for one production cycle, but stabilized in older ponds. No correlation between Ca and growing cycle was observed. Calculated recovery rates for elements supplied in feed were less than 10% in several cases and 15% for P. No measurable negative effect on shrimp production by the increase of elemental concentrations was measured.     

精养虾池的水色培养及调控方法

“养虾先养水”是业内人士都认同的观点 ,它说明了水色在对虾养殖生产中的重要性。在整个养殖过程中 ,要营造良好而稳定的水色是养虾技术的重点和难点。说起来容易 ,做起来难度很大。现针对对虾高产养殖生产中经常碰到一些有关水色调控的问题 ,提出一些处理方法 ,以供参考或共同探讨 :1　虾池水色的标准及作用水色是虾池水体理化因子的综合反映 ,它与水中浮游生物的种类和数量有密切关系。对虾养殖生产中通常以池水的颜色、透明度的大小和清爽度来衡量池水水色的好坏 ,良好的水色应是黄褐色、黄绿色 ,清爽而亮泽 ,硅藻和绿藻同时成为优势种…     

淡水青虾土池人工育苗技术

在土池中架设敞口式网箱，箱内放养抱卵青虾进行强化培育及幼虾孵化，通过适时培养生物开口饵料，及时投喂人工饲料，保持中度肥水等技术措施和20余天的培育，经验收小组确认，每亩生产1cm以上的虾苗 140余万尾。并对适宜青虾育苗的池塘生态条件及饵料生物培养，水质调节提出了自己的看法。     

Shrimp Yields and Economic Potential of Intensive Round Pond Systems

Three intensive growout trials using Penaeus vunnumei were conducted in round ponds in Hawaii in 1987. A 337 m² experimental pond was stocked at 100 shrimp/m² for two trials; a 2,000 m² commercial prototype pond was stocked at 75/m² for one trial. In the experimental pond trials, shrimp survival averaged 88 ± 10% (SE) and feed conversion averaged 2.2 ± 0.2. Growth averaged 1.5 ± 0.3 g/week, yielding 18.2 ± 1.7 gram shrimp in 80 ± 5.5 days. Combined production in the experimental trials was 32,272 kg/ha in 174 days (from stocking of trial 1 to harvest of trial 2). Comparing these results to 1986 results (Wyban and Sweeney 1988), it was concluded that shrimp growth is not affected and production is doubled by increasing stocking density from 45/m² to 100/m². Pooling data from 1986 and 1987, a significant linear regression was obtained when weekly growth of shrimp above four grams individual size was regressed on mean weekly pond temperature: growth = 0.37 * temperature - 8.44, (r²= 0.41; P < 0.01). Multiple regression to examine effects of shrimp size, pond biomass, and shrimp age on the temperature-growth relationship was not significant. In the commercial prototype pond trial, survival was 67% and feed conversion was 2.0. Growth averaged 1.4 g/week, yielding 18.1 gram shrimp in 88 days. Production was 9,120 kg/ha. Individual shrimp size distribution at harvest in the commercial pond was similar to experimental pond results, indicating that shrimp growth in the two systems was comparable. Financial characteristics of a hypothetical 24 pond shrimp farm using these results were determined using an electronic spreadsheet model (hung and Rowland 1987). Feed costs were 40% of total operating costs while postlarvae and labor were 14% and 16% of total operating costs, respectively. Breakeven price (BEP) was far more sensitive to changes in revenuedetermining inputs such as survival and growth than to comparable changes in costdetermining inputs such as feed and postlarvae costs. Together these results suggest that commercial scale round pond production mimics experimental scale production and that round pond technology has commercial potential.     

几种对虾池塘放养模式的生态效益评价

从生态效益角度对我国对虾池塘的几种放养模式进行了评价,综合放养模式符合生态平衡、物种共生互利以及对物质多层次利用等生态学原理,较之于单品种放养模式具有较高的生态效益,在我国具有强大的生命力和广阔的发展前景。     

日本沼虾水泥池育苗试验

选取450只平均抱卵量为960粒/尾健康活力强的抱卵虾作为亲本进行育苗试验,并对日本沼虾蚤状幼体分期进行系统观察。结果在孵化期间共获得蚤状幼体408 240尾,孵化率为94.5%,育苗后期共获得仔虾242 086尾,蚤状幼体发育到仔虾的成活率为59.3%,蚤状幼体可分为Ⅴ期。本试验结果为今后日本沼虾人工育苗技术推广提供参考。     

Biochemical Composition of Pond Biota, Shrimp Ingesta, and Relative Growth of Penaeus vannamei in Earthen Ponds

Indigenous pond biota contribute to the nutrition of shrimp grown in semi-intensive and extensive earthen ponds. Penaeus vannomei ingesta was used to assess the nutritional contribution of pond biota and applied feed in model 225 m² nominally managed earthen ponds. Biochemical analyses were also performed on representative pond biota and pond environment samples. Average dry matter shrimp ingesta composition ( N = 64) was: available carbohydrate, 4.2%± 1.8%; lipid, 4.8%± 2.3%; available protein, 9.6%± l.0%; carbon, 9.6%± 1.0%; nitrogen, 5.9%± 2.9%. Ingesta carbon decreased from 27.0%± 3.9% on week 2 to 16.3%± 3.3% on week 8, and nitrogen content decreased from 9.5%± 4.3% to 3.6%± 0.8% during the same interval. The decrease of ingesta C:N ratio from weeks 2 to 8 may indicate changing nutritional requirements of the shrimp. Ingesta essential amino acids varied by less than 10% from short-neck clam protein. Except for several samples which were low in arginine, pond biota and environment samples contained amino acid profiles which were close to short-neck clam. Essential fatty acid composition of shrimp ingesta was highly variable. Ingesta 22:6 fatty acid was present in populations of shrimp from ponds experiencing the highest weekly growth rates. Ingesta 22:6 fatty acid was not present in measurable amounts in shrimp experiencing the lowest growth. The unsaturated fatty acids 20:5 and 22:6 were absent from some pond biota and environment samples and abundant in others. The applied diet contained no measurable 20:5 or 22:6. The management implications of shrimp ingesta biochemical analyses are that diets may be fed which nutritionally complement pond biota consumed by the shrimp.     

自生物絮团养殖池分离具有亚硝酸盐去除功能的细菌及其鉴定和特性

从凡纳滨对虾生物絮团养殖池排水渠中分离出一株对亚硝酸盐具有高效去除能力的菌株(201107290102),16S r RNA序列分析结果显示,该菌株与美丽盐单胞菌(Halomonas venusta)的相似度高达99%,初步鉴定为美丽盐单胞菌。其去除亚硝酸盐最适条件为碳氮比(C/N)=15、温度37℃、初始p H 10.0、盐度40,最高去除率达91.7%。研究结果表明,该菌株能高效利用亚硝酸盐,可改良生物絮团养殖环境。     

微生态制剂对虾池水质影响的研究

以虾为研究对象来探讨微生态制剂对虾池水质的改良效果。在养虾池中分别加入光合细菌、芽孢杆菌以及不同浓度的微生态制剂,待其生长繁殖后测定氨氮、亚硝酸盐、溶解氧、COD值和pH值等各项水质指标。结果表明,微生态制剂对虾池水质具有较好的改善作用,其最适使用浓度约为2 0×1010个/m3。