Coxiella-like infection in psittacines and a toucan

Seven psittacine birds and a toucan (Ramphastos toco) were diagnosed as infected with Coxiella-like bacteria, based on polymerase chain reaction and bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequence obtained from each bird's liver tissue. Most of the birds exhibited lethargy and weakness for several days prior to death. Gross lesions included mild to moderate emaciation and severely enlarged and mottled pale livers and spleens. Microscopically, there was multifocal necrosis of hepatocytes with infiltration of a mixed population of inflammatory cells, including lymphocytes, heterophils, plasma cells, and macrophages randomly scattered throughout in most birds. In several birds within the macrophages there were vacuoles containing basophilic small cocco-bacilli organisms measuring about 0.5-1 microm. The spleens had increased numbers of mononuclear phagocytic system cells, some of which had vacuoles that contained similar organisms, as observed in the liver. There was inflammation in the epicardium and endocardium, interstitium of the lungs, kidney, adrenal and thyroid glands, lamina propria of the intestine, and in occasional birds in the brain, bursa of Fabricius, and bone marrow associated with similar organisms in the macrophages. Transmission electron microscopy of the liver and lungs in most birds and in the thyroid glands of one bird revealed pleomorphic round to elongated bacteria measuring about 0.45 microm in diameter and more than 1.0 microm in length. Most of these organisms contained a peripheral zone of loosely arranged electron dense material that was located immediately beneath a trilaminar membrane. Occasional organisms contained nucleoids. This is the first documentation of disease presumptively associated with Coxiella-like bacteria in birds.     

High incidence of glomerulonephritis associated with inclusion body hepatitis in broiler chickens: routine histopathology and histomorphometric studies

During the routine histologic evaluation of an outbreak of inclusion body hepatitis (IBH) in Mississippi broilers, a high incidence of renal enlargement and glomerulonephropathy was observed in the birds presenting classic hepatic pathology. Characteristic intranuclear adenoviral inclusion bodies were demonstrated in the livers of these birds, and fowl adenovirus was identified by viral isolation and by PCR. The glomerular lesions were consistent with proliferative or membranoproliferative forms of glomerulonephritis. Histomorphometric evaluations were performed to generate a more quantitative analysis of altered glomerular size and cellularity, to detect statistically significant borderline changes, and to get a clearer insight into the incidence of the glomerular alterations. Marked increases in both the average glomerular size (area) and the total glomerular cellularity were observed for the affected glomeruli relative to normal controls. The average glomerular area values for normal glomeruli in the peripheral subcapsular cortical and central cortical kidney regions were 1791 microm2 and 5302 microm2, respectively. In contrast, glomerular measurements for kidneys exhibiting glomerulonephritis by routine histopathology, had average values for the two regions of 4429 microm2 and 11,063 microm2. The average glomerular cell counts for the two regions in controls were 44 and 107 cells/ glomeruli, while averages for birds with glomerulonephritis were 85 and 193 cells/glomeruli. The proportion of IBH-associated glomeruli greater than two standard deviations above the mean glomerular size of the normal controls was 52% for the central region and 62% for the peripheral region.     

Occurrence of Libyostrongylus sp. (Nematoda) in ostriches (Struthio camelus Linnaeus, 1758) from the north region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Domestic production of ostrich in Brazil started in the beginning of the last decade, but its sanitary state has not been reported. Libyostrongylus sp. is an ostrich specific nematode whose parasitism can severely affect the birds. Thus, Libyostrongylus spp. larvae were identified in commercial ostriches in the north region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The EPG was determined and fecal cultivation was performed. The eggs presented typical characteristics of strongylid and were present in five out of six farms. The mean EPG varied from 22 to 2395 and Libyostrongylus spp. prevalence was from 0 to 100%, with adult birds more infected. Two types of infective larvae with tail finishing in a tipped spiny knob were distinguished. The first had a mean length of 848 microm (710-1010) with a long sheath tail of about 66 microm (52-112). The other had a mean length of 826 microm (620-940) with a short, more abruptly ending sheath tail of 32 microm (22-40) and a less rounded cephalic end. The differences between these larvae suggest two Libyostrongylus species.     

Induction of humoral immune response and protective immunity in chickens against Salmonella enteritidis after a single dose of killed bacterium-loaded microspheres.

Formalin-inactivated Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4 strain 119/95 (SE) was encapsulated in biodegradable poly (DL-lactide co-glycolic acid) PLGA; (65:35) microspheres by a modified water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) double-emulsion solvent extraction/evaporation technique. These SE-loaded microspheres (SE-MS) were porous and spherical in shape with diameters of 0.4-10 microm and 20-80 microm in two preparations. SE-MS were subsequently used to vaccinate specific-pathogen-free chickens in a single dose in order to investigate the potency of a single-dose vaccination in inducing immune responses and protective immunity. In Experiment 1, 4-wk-old chickens that were vaccinated intramuscularly with 20-80-microm SE-MS generated long lasting (over 6 mo) and persistently high serum anti-SE immunoglobulin (Ig)G antibody response. In Experiment 2, 2-wk-old chickens were vaccinated orally with 0.4-10-microm or intramuscularly with 20-80-microm SE-MS and challenged with 10(9) colony-forming units of homologous SE strain at 6 wk postvaccination. When challenged intramuscularly, one each of the orally vaccinated (n = 10) and the intramuscularly vaccinated birds (n = 10) showed clinical signs and death, whereas all of the nonvaccinated control birds (n = 12) were sick and 11 of them were killed. When challenge was via oral route, 26.1% of cloacal swabs and 24.0% of organs (liver, spleen, and cecum) collected from orally vaccinated birds (n = 35) were positive for SE, comparable to 27.9% of feces and 18.7% of organs from the intramuscularly vaccinated birds (n = 35). These figures were significantly lower than those for nonvaccinated birds (n = 30) from which 59.3% of feces and 44.0% of organs tested SE positive (P < 0.05). The humoral immune response was also determined after vaccination with a single dose. The intramuscular vaccination elicited higher serum IgG response than oral administration, but the latter elicited a significant intestinal mucosal IgA antibody response. This is the first evidence that chickens vaccinated with killed SE-loaded PLGA microspheres, intramuscularly and orally in a single dose, developed systematic and local immune responses, thereby conferring protective immunity.     

Characterization of a strain of Eimeria meleagridis from the turkey

An isolate of Eimeria meleagridis Tyzzer, 1927 was obtained by harvesting oocysts from the ceca of a turkey from northwest Arkansas and a pure line was established by infecting birds with a single oocyst. Oocysts were first produced in the ceca of infected birds from 102 to 108 hr after inoculation and were of similar size (mean length X width, 24.9 X 17.0 microm) to those of Eimeria adenoeides Moore and Brown, 1951 and Eimeria gallopavonis Hawkins, 1952. The line was identified as E. meleagridis based upon the development of large schizonts in the midintestine, and small schizonts in the ceca. Two generations of large schizonts were found 48 and 72 hr after infection, and at least two generations of small schizonts were found from 60 to 108 hr after infection. An inoculum of 2 X 10(5) oocysts was found to cause a significant reduction in weight gain from days 0-3 and 0-6 after infection, suggesting that the significance of this species of Eimeria as a pathogen of turkeys should be reassessed.     

An aerosolized fluorescent microsphere technique for evaluating particle deposition in the avian respiratory tract

The objective of this study was to examine the feasibility of using aerosolized fluorescent microspheres to examine particle distribution in the respiratory tract of birds following aerosol exposure. Adult domestic pigeons (Columbia livia domestica; n = 5 birds per microsphere size) were exposed to aerosolized monodispersed populations of various sized carboxylate microspheres (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 6.0, and 10.0 microm) for 30 min. For aerosol-exposure purposes, the birds were anesthetized with injectable anesthetics, intubated, and placed on positive-pressure ventilation using a mechanical ventilator. Immediately following aerosol exposure, the birds were euthanatized, and carcasses were preserved via intravenous infusion of modified paraformaldehyde/gluteraldehyde fixative (pH = 7.2 and 340 mOsm). Initial evaluation of microsphere distribution in air sacs (cranial and caudal thoracic and abdominal) and at the level of the ostia was performed using a stereoscopic microscope with an epifluorescent module. More detailed examination of the distribution of microspheres within the respiratory tract was achieved using a confocal scanning laser microscope with a krypton argon laser and a scanning electron microscope. The results from this study revealed that positive-pressure ventilation resulted in distribution of smaller sized fluorescent microspheres (sizes 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 microm) throughout the pigeon's respiratory tracts, and these microspheres were in highest concentration in the secondary bronchi and ostia for all of the examined air sacs. The larger sized beads (6.0 and 10.0) were confined to the upper airway (trachea and primary bronchi). The results from this study allow for a better understanding of particle deposition following positive-pressure ventilation and aerosol exposure in birds.     

Study of nebulization delivery of aerosolized fluorescent microspheres to the avian respiratory tract

This study investigated the delivery of an aerosol of monodisperse microspheres to the respiratory tract of birds following aerosol exposure. Adult domestic pigeons (Columbia livia domestica, n = 5 birds per timed treatment) were exposed to an aerosol of fluorescent 1.0 microm diameter carboxylate microspheres for 0.5, 1, 2, or 4 hr. During the aerosolization period, the birds were free-standing in a plexiglass treatment chamber and the aerosol was delivered using a commercial nebulizer. Immediately following aerosol exposure, the birds were euthanatized and the carcasses were intravenously infused with a modified paraformaldehyde/gluteraldehyde fixative. Evaluation of microsphere distribution was performed using a stereoscopic microscope with an epifluorescent module. The results from this study revealed that the amount of aerosolized particles delivered using a commercial nebulizer was proportional to exposure periods. Aerosol exposure periods of 0.5 hr or 1 hr did not result in a readily observable distribution of 1.0 microm fluorescent microspheres to the cranial thoracic, caudal thoracic, or abdominal air sac membranes. This was partly attributed to the relatively low concentration of the individual monodisperse microspheres in the aerosolized suspension. The 2- and 4-hr exposure periods resulted in readily observable deposition of the 1.0 mirom fluorescent microspheres in the cranial thoracic, caudal thoracic, or abdominal air sac membranes, with the 4-hr exposure period resulting in the greatest number of particles on the membrane surfaces. For each of the exposure periods, there was individual animal variation regarding the distribution and relative number of spheres deposited. This study demonstrates the widespread deposition of particles that had an aerodynamic equivalent diameter of approximately 1 microm and provides a better understanding of particle deposition efficiency within the respiratory system following aerosol exposure in birds.     

Effects of two wheat cultivars on physico-chemical properties of wheat flours and digesta from two broiler chicken lines (D+ and D-) differing in digestion capacity

1. The current experiment is the second part of a study about the effects of wheat quality on digestibility of pelleted diets for broiler chickens. In the first part, it was shown that a hard cultivar resulted in a negative effect on starch digestibility in two divergent lines of chickens (D+ and D-) selected for digestion capacity. The aim of this second part was to investigate the reasons for this negative effect of a hard cultivar (Baltimor) compared to a soft one (Scipion) in D+ and D- lines. 2. Proventriculus pepsin activity and pancreas proteolytic and amylolytic activities were estimated in 4 pools of birds: 'D+ line (Baltimor fed)', 'D+ line (Scipion fed)', 'D- line (Baltimor fed)' and 'D- line (Scipion fed)'. Results suggested the greatest amount of pepsin units per g BW for D+ birds and the lowest amount of pancreas proteolytic units per g BW for D+ birds fed Scipion wheat. Pancreas showed very similar alpha-amylase activities among treatments. 3. In vitro hydrolyses of wheat gluten proteins with proventriculus extracts from pools of D+ and D- birds did not show any differences between hard and soft cultivars, whatever the origin of pools. 4. Pepsin hydrolysis of fine (300 to 425 microm) and coarse (1180 to 1600 microm) fractions from wheat flours (Baltimor or Scipion) showed that the 30 min proteolysis rate was highest for the fine fraction in both cultivars. No difference was observed with extended hydrolysis time. 5. In vitro digestion simulation of whole wheat flours confirmed the results previously obtained in vivo, with a negative effect of hard cultivar on starch digestion rate and no effect on protein digestion. 6. Laser particle size analyses showed that ileum digesta from birds fed with hard wheat cultivar showed the highest proportion of coarse particles. 7. Microscopic analyses of D+ ileum digesta revealed that the concentration of undigested starch granules in the subaleurone area of wheat bran particles was the highest with hard cultivar. 8. The results suggested that physical entrapment of starch granules in coarse particles was a major explanation for decreased starch digestibility values in chickens fed hard wheat diets.     

Blackhead disease in turkeys: direct transmission of Histomonas meleagridis from bird to bird in a laboratory model

The spread of Histomonas meleagridis infections through groups of turkeys in the absence of the cecal worm vector (Heterakis gallinarum) was studied in a battery cage model. Battery-reared poults were exposed at 2 wk of age by commingling with infected birds into cages that had the floor lined with paper. One treatment received no exposure, whereas other birds were commingled with two, three, or four birds/cage (25%, 37.5%, or 50%) inoculated per cloaca with cultured H. meleagridis (200,000/bird). Inoculated birds died at 7-13 days postinoculation (DPI) showing typical liver and cecal lesions of histomoniasis. By 14 DPI, 87.5% of the directly inoculated birds died or had severe lesions of histomoniasis. Turkeys commingled with two, three, or four infected birds became infected at the rate of 72%, 80%, or 75%, respectively. In another experiment, two birds/cage (25%) were inoculated with Histomonas from culture and allowed to commingle with other birds for 1, 2, 3, or 4 days. Two of 12 (16.7%) birds had minor cecal lesions after contact with inoculated birds for 1 day, but 87.5%-100% became infected if inoculated birds remained in the cage for 2-4 days. Contemporaneous inoculation with cecal coccidia (Eimeria adenoeides) as a predisposing factor in blackhead infections was studied using the model. Turkey poults directly inoculated with Histomonas were allowed to commingle for 5 days with uninoculated birds that had received inoculation with 0, 10(3), or 10(4) sporulated oocysts. The coccidian infection appeared to interfere with transmission of blackhead infection by 7 DPI, as suggested by lessened severity of cecal lesions and a lower percentage of infected birds. These studies confirm that histomoniasis is transmitted readily from directly exposed young turkeys to others in the absence of the cecal worm vector, and that this phenomenon can be reproduced in battery cages as an experimental model.     

Histochemical properties and collagen architecture of M. iliotibialis lateralis and M. puboischiofemoralis in male broilers with different growth rates induced by feeding at different planes of nutrition

1. The histochemical properties and the collagen content and architecture of the iliotibialis lateralis (ITL) and puboischiofemoralis (PIF) muscles were assessed in Red Cornish x New Hampshire cockerels reared on a high nutrient plane for 80 d (H80d), or a low nutrient plane for 80 d (L80d) or 95 d (L95d). 2. Final live weights were 3410 g in H80d, 2810 g in L80d and 3467 g in L95d. Both ITL and PIF muscle weights were lowest in L80d and did not differ between H80d and L95d. 3. ITL muscle was composed of fast-twitch myofibres such as IIA (high reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase, NADH-DH activity), IIB (low NADH-DH activity) and IIC (intermediate NADH-DH activity). The high percentage of type IIB myofibres in H80d (76.6%) and L95d (76.2%) birds were reflected in low percentages of type IIC myofibres (12.2%) in H80d birds and type IIA myofibres (8.2%) in L95d birds. Percentages of IIA, IIB and IIC myofibres in L80d cockerels were 12.4, 69.8 and 17.6%, respectively. 4. The myofibres in PIF muscle were divided into two basic types, I and IIA, and a transitional form (I-tr) from IIA to I. In the caudal region, all myofibres in H80d and L95d cockerels were type I but in L80d cockerels 15% of myofibres were categorised as type I-tr. In the cranial region, the great majority (52 to 63%) of myofibres were type IIA. Type I myofibres occurred at a higher percentage in H80d (30.5%) than L95d (21.8%) and type I-tr in L95d (15.7%) than H80d (7.3%) and L80d (11.5%). 5. The total amount of collagen was higher in ITL than PIF muscle in every bird group. In both muscles the highest collagen content was in L95d cockerels but the content did not differ between H80d and L80d birds. The thickness of thick and thin perimysia increased with muscle size. The circular collagen fibre in the thick perimysium was larger in ITL (6.1 to 7.0 microm) than PIF (3.7 to 3.8 microm) muscle but did not differ among the bird groups. 6. From these results, it was concluded that feeding on a high nutritional plane promotes growth of the thigh muscles, with accompanying enlargement of the perimysial thickness, no increase in collagen content and various changes of histochemical properties.     

In vivo confocal microscopy in the normal corneas of cats, dogs and birds

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the applicability of in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM) in veterinary ophthalmology and analyze the morphology of living, healthy cornea. ANIMALS EXAMINED: Thirty-seven dogs, 34 cats and five birds. PROCEDURE: Various corneal sublayers were visualized in the central region using an in vivo confocal corneal microscope (HRTII/RCM). RESULTS: An investigation method was developed and adapted for use on animals with varying skull forms and eye positions. Real-time images of the epithelial cells, the corneal stroma and the endothelial layer were obtained. The corneal stromal nerve trunks and the subepithelial and basal epithelial nerve plexus were visualized. In dogs, full corneal thickness (FCT) was 585 +/- 79 microm (mean +/- SD) and endothelial cell density (ECD) 3175 +/- 776 cells/mm(2) (mean +/- SD). In cats, FCT was 592 +/- 80 microm and ECD 2846 +/- 403 cells/mm(2). There were no significant differences between canine and feline FCT and ECD and no morphologic differences could be seen between dogs and cats. The bird images revealed a number of structural differences. CONCLUSION: Noninvasive IVCM allows accurate detection of corneal sublayers, corneal pachymetry, endothelial cell density and corneal innervation in various animal species. For clinical usage, patients must be under general anesthesia. The confocal images provided anatomic reference images of various healthy corneal structures in dogs, cats and birds.     

Production and characterization of biodegradable Povidone-iodine microsphere as a intramammary disinfectant

Microspheres composed of biocompatible, biodegradable poly DL-lactide-co-glycolide (DL-PLGA) and Povidone-iodine were evaluated as an intramammary disinfectant delivery system in vitro prior to infusion into mammary glands. Microsphere was prepared by solvent evaporation method and particle size, morphology and in vitro release kinetics were examined. The microspheres were ranged in size from 25 microm to 155 microm (mean diameter = 65.7 microm). Povidone-iodine was dispersed on the surface of microsphere and microsphere was spherical in shape with a smooth surface. The yield of microsphere was 57.3% and the encapsulation efficiency was 69.6%. In in vitro release study, a burst effect (50.9%) was observed during the first two days and a sustained release then continued for the next 28 days. Results of the present study demonstrated that microsphere have the potential for new intramammary disinfectant formulations that can provide increased efficacy of therapy against mastitis pathogens.     

Comparison of duration of immunity in chickens infected with a live infectious bronchitis vaccine by three different routes.

Three groups of chicks were vaccinated by aerosol, intra-ocular and drinking water routes with a live infectious bronchitis (IB) vaccine. At one, two, six, 15 and 32 weeks after vaccination five birds from each group were sampled for testing for IB haemagglutination-inhibiting (HI) antibodies and challenged. Assessment of susceptibility to infection was measured by recovery of virus from individual tracheas and from kidney and gonad pools four days after challenge. Virus was isolated from all kidney and gonad pools of birds challenged one week after vaccination, the kidney and gonad pools of the drinking water vaccinates at two weeks, the kidney pool of the intra-ocular group at 15 weeks and all organ pools except the gonads of the intra-ocular group at 32 weeks. Tracheal resistance was found in most of the birds challenged one week after vaccination and in all the birds tested at two weeks but had begun to wane by six weeks after vaccination. No correlation was found between low HI antibody titres of individual birds and their susceptibility to challenge measured by reisolation of virus from the traches, but birds with titres over log2 6 were always resistant.     

Entamoeba sp. (Sarcomastigophora: Endamoebidae) from ostriches (Struthio camelus) (Aves: Struthionidae)

The first case of Entamoeba of the 1-nucleate mature cyst group in birds is described. Trophozoites and cysts of Entamoeba have been found in ostriches (Struthio camelus) from farms located all over Spain. The cysts are large (13.47microm mean diameter); they possess one nucleus when mature, with a large endosome and peripheral chromatine arranged in small granules; chromatoid bodies, when present, are large and elongated. Trophozoites are large (19. 88microm mean diameter), with a clear differentiation between ecto- and endoplasm, this containing numerous vacuoles; the nucleus is large and diffuse. The characteristics of this amoeba resembles but do not completely fulfill those of E. suis and E. chattoni; also, these species are from mammals.     

Experimental infection of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) with a low virulent K21 strain of Toxoplasma gondii

In total 53 budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) were divided into six groups and orally infected with a suspension of oocysts of low virulent Toxoplasma gondii K21 strain in the doses of 10(2), 10(3), 10(4), 10(5) and 10(6), respectively. Blood was collected from the birds prior to the inoculation and then on days 10, 20 and 30 post infection. Latex-agglutination test (LAT) was used for the detection of antibodies in the inoculated birds. The infected birds showed no apparent signs of disease. The antibodies were found in all but two birds inoculated a dose of 10(2) oocysts. Haematological values remained unchanged after infection. T. gondii was isolated by bioassay in mice from all 37 birds fed 10(3) or more oocysts and 6 of 9 fed 10(2) oocysts. The results demonstrate that budgerigars are resistant to T. gondii infection.     

Serum Profiles of Luteinizing Hormone,Oestradiol and Cholesterol and Ovarian Functions in Layer Poultry Birds (Gallus domesticus) Fed Diets Containing Furazolidone

This study was carried out to assess the serum profiles of luteinizing hormone (LH), oestradiol, cholesterol and ovarian functions in layer poultry birds (Rhode Island Red: Gallus domesticus) fed a diet containing various concentrations of furazolidone (FZ). A total of 40 birds were randomly assigned to receive FZ 0, 200, 400 or 800 mg/kg feed (ppm) daily during the pre-laying age, i.e. 13-18 weeks (for 5 weeks). Blood samples were collected at weekly intervals. Concentrations of LH and oestradiol in serum were estimated at alternate weeks using radioimmunoassays. Serum cholesterol levels were analysed by an enzymatic calorimetric method. Furazolidone administration was terminated at the 18th week of age. The birds were sacrificed at 22nd week of age and ovarian tissues were processed for morphometric studies. Serum LH, oestradiol and cholesterol levels were affected by age (p < 0.001) and FZ dose (p < 0.001). Serum LH and oestradiol levels were lower (p < 0.05) in birds receiving FZ 800 mg/kg feed daily compared with the controls, whereas serum cholesterol profiles were lower (p < 0.05) in all FZ-administered groups than in the control group. The mean weight of ovaries having no yolky follicles observed in the group receiving FZ 400 or 800 mg/kg feed per day was reduced (p < 0.05) compared with the control group. Dosing FZ at 800 mg/kg feed per day reduced (p < 0.05) the mean volume of ovaries having no yolky follicles compared with the control group. In birds receiving FZ 800 mg/kg feed per day, the mean length of the oviduct was reduced (p < 0.05) as compared with the control group. Morphometric studies revealed that the mean number of oocytes with diameter in the range 401-800 microm decreased (p < 0.05) in birds fed FZ 400 or 800 mg/kg feed per day. Initial egg production was affected by age (p < 0.001) and dose (p < 0.001) of FZ. The mean number of eggs laid by different groups revealed that egg production was reduced (p < 0.05) in birds receiving FZ 800 mg/kg feed per day as compared with the controls. The present data suggest that FZ causes suppression in serum profiles of LH, oestradiol, cholesterol and ovarian functions in Rhode Island Red layer poultry birds. Therefore, great care must be taken with use of FZ in layer poultry birds (Gallius domesticus) with regard to dosage and duration of administration.     

Salmonella typhimurium infection in domesticated fowl in a children's zoo.

Salmonella typhimurium infection occurred in a children's zoo where 11 fowl and 85 mammals were kept. Initially, the guinea pigs were infected and transmitted the infection to the fowl and rabbits. These mammals responded to medication and cleared of the infection; however, the birds were judged to contain excreters despite four regimens of treatment with antibiotics. Cloacal swabs were taken from all the birds. One turkey was positive for Salmonella and was destroyed. Pooled fecal samples from the birds were again positive. All the birds were tested serologically, and two birds, a goose and a turkey, were positive with Salmonella pullorum-gallinarum antigen, which was assumed to be a cross reaction with S. typhimurium antigen. The two birds were destroyed and the goose yielded Salmonella. The infection was finally eradicated, and the serologic examination was considered to be the most useful procedure for detection of the excreters.     

Hepatic intranuclear inclusion bodies in a cockatoo bird (Cacatua sulphurea)

One hundred and nineteen cockatoos (Cacatua sulphurea) were kept at the Animal Quarantine Station in Denpasar, Indonesia. These birds were intended to be exported overseas. Nine birds were found dead in a period of 17 days. Necropsies were performed on three, and tissues were taken for microbiological and histopathological examination. Examinations revealed that two birds had both Newcastle disease and aspergillosis, and one bird was found to contain hepatic intranuclear inclusion bodies suggestive of Pacheco's parrot disease. Newcastle disease and aspergillosis in cockatoos have frequently been diagnosed in our laboratory. However, the finding of hepatic intranuclear inclusion bodies in a cockatoo is considered to be the first in Indonesia.     

Sequential spread of Campylobacter infection in a multipen broiler house

Generally, colonization with Campylobacter jejuni is first detected in broilers 2-3 wk after hatching. Once introduced into a flock, this infection spreads very rapidly. The sources and routes of transmission of C. jejuni in broilers remain debatable. In this study, the spread of infection was monitored in a commercial multipen broiler house in which birds were contained in discrete groups and sampled sequentially. Colonization was monitored in two broiler flocks up to slaughter. Serotyping and fla typing methods were applied to differentiate all the C. jejuni strains isolated. In flock 1, colonization was first detected at 32 days of age in birds located at the rear of the house. By 40 days, nearly all the birds were infected with the same strain (fla type 1.9). However, at 46 days of age, a second strain (fla type 3.7) was detected in some of the birds. These birds were also located toward the rear of the house. In flock 2, infection was detected at 5 wk of age. This infection was once again first detected in birds located at the rear of the house. In this flock, only a single fla type (1.1) was isolated throughout. A survey of the broiler house relative to the location of first point of infection indicated the use of an entrance door unprotected by boot dips. However, securing this door during the second flock study did not prevent infection.     

Effects of probiotics: alone and in a mixture of Biosacc plus Zinc Bacitracin on the caecal microflora of Japanese quail

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two commercially available probiotics, alone and in combination with an antibiotic, on the caecal flora of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) reared under unstressed conditions. Thirty-four 90-day-old Japanese quail were selected for this study. The birds were divided into four groups, two groups of nine birds and two groups of eight birds. The animals in these groups were given feed containing 0.5 kg per tonne of probiotics alone (Protexin or Biosacc), a mixture of probiotic plus antibiotic (Biosacc plus Zinc Bacitracin at 0.5 and 0.0525 ppm, respectively), and a group where no supplement was added to be used as controls. The total count of aerobic bacteria, lactobacilli, enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, enteroccoci, salmonellae, sulphite-reducing anaerobic bacteria (clostridia), and pH values in the caecal content of the birds were examined. No significant differences were detected among the four groups for pH values and bacterial number (p>0.05), except for sulphite-reducing anaerobic bacteria (p<0.001). These results suggest that the use of probiotics alone and/or a mixture of a probiotic plus antibiotic as a feed supplement does not have a major suppressing effect on the majority of bacterial groups in the caecal flora of mature, healthy Japanese quail reared in unstressed conditions.