Perceptions of parks and urban derelict land by landscape planners and residents

As urban green spaces are important for residential satisfaction, human preferences are a key criterion in their design. However, preferences may vary between landscape planners and residents, which may result in differences between residents’ demands and the actual design. With urban derelict land becoming an important part of the urban green infrastructure, information about the perception and acceptance by residents compared to formal urban parks is important for their planning and design. It was thus examined how different types of urban green spaces are perceived by landscape planners and residents. Criteria for the classification of green spaces used by both participant groups were compared, as were the criteria that influenced preference.Participants sorted and rated photographs of parks and urban derelict land in two different tasks. Hierarchical cluster analyses and multidimensional scaling analyses were used to characterize the participants’ perceptual space. By conducting multiple regression analyses the resulting perceptual dimensions were related to preference.The identified perceptual criteria used to distinguish green spaces were degree of canopy closure, artificiality vs. naturalness, prospect, physical accessibility, and beauty. For residents, the degree of canopy closure was the most important criterion for classification; for landscape planners, it was artificiality. Preferences varied between groups: whereas landscape planners preferred rather natural areas with low accessibility and high species richness, the residents showed a greater preference for formal parks.As a practical implication, the study suggests that residents generally accept urban derelict land as recreational areas if a minimum of maintenance and accessibility is provided. When designing green spaces, landscape planners may consider these differences in their preferences compared to residents.     

Visitors’ heterogeneous preferences for urban park management: The case of a city park in Oulu,Finland

Utilizing survey data collected using a combined travel cost – conditional behavior method, the aim of this study was to analyze the heterogeneity of preferences among the residents of a city in Finland for the services of an urban park and its stream network. More specifically, by analyzing different behavioral responses to potential changes in ecological, cultural, and commercial services, we identified different groups of visitors to the park with a latent class model. A notable result regarding the demand for services in different classes was that low-income people valued the park more than high-income respondents, making improvements in the park’s recreational potential a successful social project. We found two latent classes, the main distinguishing factor of which was the preferences associated with increasing the number of events in the park. Adding events did not increase the benefits for the first class, but for the second class it did. In relation to class membership, if visitors usually visited the park alone or if they walked or cycled to the park, this increased the likelihood of belonging to a particular visitor group. In addition, we assessed how a possible increase in services affected the recreational value of the urban park for the city’s residents. We found that both the total and net value for different urban groups depended on three factors, i.e., the number of visits, the recreational value of a visit, and the proportion of people in each visitor group. We also used the results of the study to assess the profitability of a construction and management project in the park and found that the project was socially very profitable. Although our study examined a specific park in Finland, its results could also potentially be used when planning the management of other urban parks.     

“A living street and not just green”: Exploring public preferences and concerns regarding nature-based solution implementation in urban streetscapes

Leveraging the benefits offered by nature-based solutions (NBS) will be vital in addressing present and future environmental and social challenges as urban densification continues to exert pressure on cities. The greening of urban streets, in particular, provides many benefits in terms of livability, health, and biodiversity. While many studies have explored the suitability of NBS in a particular context considering the benefits they provide in relation to local environmental challenges (e.g. filtering the air in areas with high pollution, absorbing water in areas prone to flooding), this study focuses on residents’ perspectives on and their demand for NBS. This is particularly relevant given the importance of public acceptance of NBS measures for their success. The research presented in this paper is based on a mixed-methods study, combining an online survey and eight focus group interviews, which aimed to better understand which types of NBS people prefer, how much and what types of street space they are willing to exchange for street greening, and the opportunities and concerns they have regarding varying degrees of street greening. Findings suggest that respondents are overwhelmingly in favor of greening their street with NBS, yet preferred NBS and opinions on where to implement them vary among participants. Further, street greening was thought to come up against other understandings of how streets should be used and for what purpose. These considerations should be taken up by planners to improve the uptake of NBS.     

Urban greenspace access,uses, and values: A case study of user perceptions in metropolitan ravine parks

Urban greenspaces provide critical ecosystem services to urban area residents. While urban greenspaces provide a range of ecosystem services, cultural ecosystem services may be the most prominent to residents. Cultural ecosystem services provide benefits through educational, recreational, social, and spiritual opportunities. More knowledge is required about greenspace users’ perspectives of their local greenspaces, which will enrich park planners’ knowledge of the preferences, concerns, and potential points of conflict that greenspace users experience. To help increase this knowledge, we conducted a survey with closed and open-ended questions and supported it with a park audit and photographic evidence. As a case study, data were collected in six ravine parks in the City of Toronto, Canada. Ravine parks were of particular interest as they are a unique form of socio-ecological greenspace that have varied management goals which on occasion may differ from some user preferences and values. Quantitative data were analyzed with analysis of variance and chi-square tests of independence, and qualitative data were analyzed with conventional qualitative content analysis. Our results highlight that current ravine park users vary widely in their characteristics and the values they pursue through their park access. While the range of ravine park types accommodates some of this variability, there is also conflict between ravine park users with different values and expectations. We are offering a series of recommendations addressing these findings and hope that insights from this deep and rich case study will be of use to other forested, urban greenspaces under similar conditions.     

Landscape perception and recreation needs in urban green space in Fuyang,Hangzhou, China

This study analyzes the landscape characteristics and the residents’ recreational activities in the urban green spaces in Fuyang, Hangzhou, China. It explores the correlation of the desire to be in close proximity to urban green space to engage in recreational activities (the need for recreation) related to residents’ demographic and socio-economic factors: gender, education, monthly income and dwelling location. Residents’ preferences for landscape elements and attributes of urban green space are examined using principal components analysis. In addition, regression analysis identifies that coherence and vegetation are the most relevant factors correlated with perceived overall recreational appropriateness of the three most frequently visited urban parks. The purpose of the study is to attempt to quantify people's recreation needs in urban green space; identify the landscape components in urban green space which can encourage more outdoor visits and/or greater recreational activities; and provide proposals and strategies on planning, management and conservation for recreation-oriented urban green space which will enhance people's enjoyment and wellbeing by improving landscape esthetic quality, recreational and ecological function.     

COVID-19 pandemic changes the recreational use of Moscow parks in space and time: Outcomes from crowd-sourcing and machine learning

The limited access to urban green spaces during the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on the human-nature interaction in cities and human well-being. Number of visitors to green areas, initially declined due to imposed restrictions, was restored after they were lifted as established by several studies across the globe However, little is still known about changes in behavior and preferences of park visitors in the post-COVID time. In this study, we investigated spatial-temporal patterns of recreational activities in the three urban parks in Moscow (Russia) prior, during and after the COVID-19 lockdown (in 2019 and 2020). The selected parks represent two different types: a centrally located park with much infrastructure and open landscapes (Gorky Park) and parks located at the outskirts of the city center with a more forested landscape and little infrastructure (Timiryazevski and Sokolniki parks). Recreational activities were identified based on the analysis of social media photos using machine-learning algorithms. As expected, park closures during lockdown resulted in overall decrease in the number of taken photos. After the parks were re-opened, however, the number of photos did not grow immediately. The number of photos only restored after almost three months, and the visiting peak shifted to autumn. Differences between parks were related to the type of the park and its landscape structure. The lowest decrease in the number of photos was observed for the Timiryazevsky park – a semi-natural green area, while the centrally located Gorky Park was the most affected, likely due to the strictest control measures. In comparison to 2019, photos in 2020 were more evenly distributed across the area in all the three parks. Besides, ‘natural’ areas became the main attractors for the visitors - photos under ‘nature observation’ category became the most popular. Spatial distribution of the recreational activities in post-lockdown period was characterized by larger distances between photos, likely corresponding to the social distancing. COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the value of green areas for citizens, but also changed their recreational preferences and overall behavior in parks. The observed shift from high density of visitors around entertainments and attractions in 2019 to a more homogeneous and less dense distribution along the natural zones in 2020 reveals a new pattern in visitors behavior and preference, which shall be considered in spatial planning of the parks. Increasing availability of natural green areas and their integration in urban green infrastructures can become the most relevant policy to consider the crucial role of urban nature as a source of resilience in turbulent times.     

The influence of bird information,attitudes, and demographics on public preferences toward urban green spaces: The case of Montpellier,France

Urban sprawl is a major driving force of land use change. To develop strategies for sustainable urban development, planners need suitable indicators, one of which is the quality and quantity of green spaces in a city. To implement conservation strategies for urban areas, an assessment of how people perceive green spaces is required. The aim of this paper is to analyze: (1) willingness to contribute financially to two types of urban green spaces, (2) how people's attitudinal and socio-economic characteristics affect this willingness, and (3) to what extent this willingness is affected by the information that green spaces are important for avifauna conservation. We found that 72% of the respondents in Montpellier, France preferred natural (versus ornamental) green spaces and wanted them to be increased in the city. To achieve this, 52% of the respondents were willing to pay a percentage of their monthly household income. Giving information about birds to residents increased their preferences (especially for those having a “favourable” attitude for urban fauna) for “natural” green spaces and increased willingness to pay for green spaces among people using green spaces at least monthly. For people less concerned about nature, there was no such effect of providing bird information on preferences for green spaces.     

Protest response and contingent valuation of an urban forest park in Fuzhou City,China

Urban forest parks, such as Fuzhou National Forest Park (FNFP), provide residents with landscape amenities, recreational opportunities, and interaction with nature. Understanding the recreational quality of green spaces and visitors’ behaviors and preferences is essential for effective forest park conservation strategy. We aimed to assess the recreational use and amenities of FNFP and calculate the monetary value of provided services using a contingent valuation method (CVM). A total of 249 park visitors were interviewed face-to-face based on a questionnaire using entrance fee as the payment vehicle, in October 2015 and January 2016. A considerable number of protest responses may cause selectivity bias; consequently, we used models excluding protest zeros. Sample selection models were estimated using Heckman’s two-step and full information maximum likelihood methods The average willingness-to-pay (WTP) was estimated to be 13.79 RMB (equivalent to 2.00 USD) for the unconditional model, and the lower mean values were estimated for two selectivity bias corrected models. In this case, park visitors would be willing to pay an average 11.6 RMB (equivalent to 1.69 USD) per person according to the full information maximum likelihood estimate and an average 10.96 RMB (equivalent to 1.60 USD) per person by the two-step method. Respondents’ satisfaction of forest park facilities and service significantly influenced their WTP value for forest park improvements. Socio-demographic features could not effectively discriminate the protest bidders and the other non-protest bidders. Our results suggest that protesters may value the resource less than positive bidders. The high percentage of protest respondents may be due to the current free use of FNFP and payment vehicle of entrance fee. The CVM approach takes residents’ preferences into consideration and allows the study of heterogenous socio-demographic groups; thus, our data may help to develop effective management plans for improving urban forest parks in China.     

Managing the potential for outdoor recreation: Adequate mapping and measuring of accessibility to urban recreational landscapes

Following the increasing public health concerns related to physical inactivity in the population, the relationship between outdoor recreation and public health has been increasingly acknowledged over the last decades. To improve public health, planners and policy-makers aim to provide good accessibility to recreational landscapes to facilitate outdoor recreational activity. At the same time, they are facing development pressure due to urban growth. In order for planners and policy-makers to secure people access to urban and near urban recreational areas, there is a need to map and measure access in a way that is adequate as a basis for decision-making in planning and design processes. Access is often defined as distance, or proximity, from residents’ homes to recreational areas. This paper explores different ways to map and measure distance to recreational areas, and aims to provide better decision support for planners and decision-makers. Moss municipality in Norway serves as a case study. We begin by addressing the meaning of the term ‘recreational landscape’ and how the choice of definition affects the results when mapping recreational areas. We also discuss who we are measuring distance for, and how different user groups will have different thresholds or critical distances affecting their frequency of visits to a recreational area. Last, we explore different methods for measuring distance within a GIS environment. The paper shows how the purpose of the analysis must be decisive when defining recreational landscapes and choosing methods for measuring access to recreational landscape, in order to provide valuable input to planners and policy-makers aiming at enhancing the possibility for outdoor recreation for people.     

Envisioning carbon-smart and just urban green infrastructure

To address the inter-connected climate and biodiversity crises, it is crucial to understand how multifunctional urban green infrastructure (UGI) is perceived to contribute to carbon neutrality, biodiversity, human well-being, and justice outcomes in cities. We explore how urban residents, including youth, associate carbon-related meanings with multifunctional UGI and how these meanings relate to co-benefits to biodiversity, well-being, and broader sustainability outcomes. Our findings are based on a survey distributed among urban residents of Helsinki, Finland (n = 487) and reveal how carbon-related meanings of UGI manifest at different levels of abstraction, agency, and scale, and incorporate community values and concerns attributed to the planning, features, functions, and transformational dimensions of UGI. Core carbon-related meanings of UGI emphasize either actions towards sustainability, carbon neutrality, biodiversity, or unfamiliarity towards such meanings. Perceived justice concerns and the socio-demographic contexts of the respondents covaried with carbon-related meanings associated with UGI. The results illustrate community perceptions of how it is not only possible, but rather expected, that multifunctional UGI is harnessed to tackle climate change, human well-being, and biodiversity loss in cities. Challenges for implementing the carbon-related benefits of UGI include navigating the different expectations placed on UGI and including residents with diverse socio-economic backgrounds during the process. Our findings contribute to a holistic understanding of how multifunctional UGI can help bridge policy agendas related to carbon neutrality, biodiversity protection, and human well-being that cities can implement when aiming for sustainable, just, and socially acceptable transitions towards a good Anthropocene.     

Urban residents value multi-functional urban greenspaces

Urban greenspaces are multifunctional spaces, providing services to people and biodiversity. With space in urban areas being limited creation and maintenance of urban greenspaces relies on understanding the preferences of urban residents for their characteristics. Such preferences are expected to vary with current availability, and the availability of alternatives to greenspaces such as gardens or gyms. We carried out a nationwide discrete choice experiment with Scottish urban residents to estimate values associated with greenspace attributes of: recreational features; plants and natural features; trees; accessibility; time to walk from home and size, to test the hypotheses that: (i) people are willing to pay to maintain greenspace, (ii) people have willingness to pay for greenspaces with multiple functions, including features for direct use (e.g. play equipment) and biodiversity (e.g. wildflowers), (iii) willingness to pay for individual greenspace will vary according to socioeconomic characteristics and (iv) vary with the amount of greenspace or substitute facilities available. We find a positive willingness to pay to maintain greenspace in general, and higher willingness to pay for larger greenspaces closer to home, which are multifunctional and contain both direct use features (e.g. children’s play park) and biodiversity features. Although we find significant heterogeneity in willingness to pay for maintaining greenspace, this is not well explained by either socioeconomic characteristics or the availability of substitute facilities. Our results have relevance for urban natural capital accounting, and demonstrate to urban planners the importance of the design and maintenance of multi-functional greenspaces for urban populations and would benefit from future research that further explores heterogeneity, including perceptions of greenspace access and substitutes, and greenspace quality.     

Accessibility measurements for urban parks considering age-grouped walkers’ sectorial travel behavior and built environment

A walking-accessible urban park system is essential to the physical and mental health of urban residents. However, it is difficult to accurately describe the walking behavior of elderly and young visitors using empirical models (i.e., empirical threshold distance and empirical decay function), because of the differences in walking ability and distance decay among visitors of different ages. To address this challenge, this study used survey data to extract the travel behavior of elderly and younger visitors from a survey of 3625 walking respondents using a sectional threshold distance in central Wuhan. A multiple linear regression model was then built to discover how the factors influence the sectional threshold distance for different age groups. The results show that the travel time threshold for elderly visitors was approximately 0.47–1 min shorter than for other visitors, and the difference became more obvious for the 85th percentile of visitors’ segment travel time. The correlation analysis and regression results suggest that the surrounding built environment, such as restaurants, mostly had to a positive impact on sectional threshold distances, while park facilities were negatively correlated with the threshold distance. This consequently led to different accessibility levels for visitors by age, and elderly people presented an accessibility 0.0012 person/ha lower than young visitors. These findings provide a more accurate and refined decision-making basis for urban planners and managers to optimize park layouts.     

Perceptions of cultural ecosystem services of tree-based green infrastructure: A focus group participatory mapping in Zagreb,Croatia

Urban green infrastructure provides city dwellers numerous benefits. Among them, cultural ecosystem services (CES) are distinguished by being easily perceived and essential for people and their well-being. However, not all CES are equally easy to perceive, resulting with some of the CES categories being weakly explored. Research on CES also rarely considers elements of urban green infrastructure other than parks and forests. Therefore, there is a lack of research on different components of urban green infrastructure, especially tree-based, perceived in relation to CES. This paper presents the results of focus group participatory mapping implemented with citizens in the city districts of Zagreb on the perception of five selected CES categories in various types of urban green infrastructure. Our results show that participants perceived 13 different types of tree-based urban green infrastructure as providers of CES. We also distinguish patterns in the perception of CES categories and their connection with types of tree-based urban green infrastructure. Tree lines are perceived as providers of aesthetical experiences. Furthermore, forests and park forests are perceived in relation to place attachment and recreational activities, while parks are versatile and provide all explored CES. Other types that emerged as important were greenways, greenery around residential buildings and educational institutions, which provokes rethinking of a careful planning of the entire repertoire of urban green infrastructure.     

Willingness of residents to pay and motives for conservation of urban green spaces in the compact city of Hong Kong

People attach multiple values to urban green spaces which play varied roles in cities. Properly designed monetary valuation surveys can ascertain their non-market value and underlying motives. This study investigates Hong Kong residents’ recreational use of urban green spaces and assesses the monetary value of these areas. A total of 495 urban residents from different neighbourhoods and socio-economic groups were interviewed. About 70% of the respondents visited urban green spaces at least weekly. Major companions during patronage were family members and then children. Exercises and clean air topped the list of visit purposes. The recreational pattern is associated with the cramped private living condition that pushes people to public open areas which are construed as extension of home space. The valuation question solicited overwhelming support, with over 80% of the respondents willing to pay to recover a possible loss of urban green spaces area by 20%. It yielded a monthly average payment of HK$77.43 (approx. 9.90 USD) per household for five years. Non-instrumental aspects played some role in the respondents’ bidding decision. The findings could assist green space planning and nature conservation, and hinted the need to consider the pluralistic community views and expectations in relevant public policies.     

Vegetation density of urban parks and perceived appropriateness for recreation

There is a growing body of evidence indicating that exposure to, and activities in, nature have beneficial effects on human health. Since a majority of people in many countries live in urban areas, availability and use of urban green areas is of increasing importance to public health. In the present study we measured urban residents’ (Trondheim, Norway) recreational preferences for urban park landscapes varying in vegetation density, and aimed at an identification of background variables and environmental value orientations that we hypothesised to influence such preferences. The results showed that moderately dense scenes received the highest preference ratings. Socio-demographic variables and value orientations predicted preferences for moderate to densely vegetated scenes: A curvi-linear effect of age of respondents was found, with subjects in their mid-40s expressing a higher preference for moderate to dense vegetation, compared to younger and older subjects. Preference for moderate to dense vegetation also increased as the educational levels of the respondents increased. The preference was lower among people living in apartment blocks, relative to those living in detached houses. Of attitudinal and value-related variables, interest in wildlife, and pro-ecological value orientation (measured with the NEP scale) predicted preference for urban parks with moderate and dense vegetation. The existence of preference for relatively dense vegetation in urban parks in segments of the population has consequences for the designing of urban parks in Norway.     

The green walk—An analysis for evaluating the accessibility of urban green spaces

The importance of urban green spaces in providing ecosystem services to the population is increasingly being recognised by scientists, policy makers and the general public. Across cities, urban planners are seeking to reconcile the location of urban green spaces and accessibility of the public. The main aim of our paper is to assess the accessibility of urban green spaces and to identify perceived benefits along the travel route to urban green spaces, starting from a selected case study in Romania. We started from a spatial analysis of a service area for an urban park in Bucharest (Tineretului). With the help of network analyst in ArcGis Pro we established the boundaries of the service area (using urban park boundaries, street network, traffic restrictions) and applied two methods of travel to the park (walking and cycling). We applied a survey to 202 respondents, collecting information on the routes and methods of reaching the park, as well as the perceived benefits and disservices of selecting the preferred method and route. The main results revealed different patterns delimited by a number of criteria: age (elder population preferred public transport and shaded routes), income (people with higher incomes selected travelling by car and accessing elements with parking facilities), group structure (people with children selected routes perceived as safe). This type of analyses can represent useful instruments for urban planners in developing and managing urban green spaces in close relation with neighbouring spaces and facilities.     

国内外城市湿地公园游憩价值开发典型案例分析

梳理城市湿地公园游憩价值的构成要素及景观美学、休闲娱乐、康体健身、自然教育、民俗体验价值的内容.以伦敦湿地中心、香港城市湿地公园、杭州西溪湿地公园为案例,分析城市湿地公园在基础构成要素不同的背景下确立自身的规划设计和理念、开发模式、游憩产品策划.     

Rethinking urban green spaces for urban resilience. Do green spaces need adaptation to meet public post-covid expectations?

Based on a social preference survey performed in Warsaw, we assessed the preferences toward alterations in urban green spaces (UGS) that should take place to ensure safe recreation. We identified how peoples’ personal characteristics are linked to the preferred changes to formulate recommendations for alterations addressing post-covid challenges while keeping the resident’s preferences in mind. We used 1–7 scorings of images of different types of urban landscapes, which we photomanipulated to represent varying levels of crowding, followed by questions regarding recreational behaviour, anxiety towards COVID and preferred changes. Various urban landscapes were, on average, comparably suitable for recreation, only highly urbanized landscapes receiving lower scorings. The respondents declared that vegetation density and overall share of vegetation were of the highest importance in assessing images and claimed that crowding had little effect on their preferences. Those statements were inverse to their choices when assessing recreational preferences based on images: the presence of people in all cases decreased assessment of the scenery. There was a clear respondents’ need for more wild and cultivated vegetation and more places for spending time in UGS. Any repressive actions by distancing people spatially in UGS, isolating seniors or introducing entry limits did not meet social approval. We also identified two major behavioural patterns: people who were primarily driven by fear of COVID-19, visiting green spaces closer to their homes and having less need for UGS alterations. The second group was those frequently visiting UGS who did not reveal fear of COVID-19, those who did not favour wide paths or the importance of UGS located nearby, and opted for more wilderness. These two approaches to recreation are likely to persist after the pandemic, which supports the need to increase UGS diversity.     

Linking demand and supply factors in identifying cultural ecosystem services of urban green infrastructures: A review of European studies

Urban green infrastructure provides a number of cultural ecosystem services that are greatly appreciated by the public. In order to benefit from these services, actual contact with the respective ecosystem is often required. Furthermore, the type of services offered depend on the physical characteristics of the ecosystem. We conducted a review of publications dealing with demand or social factors such as user needs, preferences and values as well as spatially explicit supply or physical factors such as amount of green space, (bio)diversity, recreational infrastructure, etc. and linking demand and supply factors together. The aim was to provide an overview of this highly interdisciplinary research, to describe how these linkages are being made and to identify which factors significantly influence dependent variables such as levels of use, activities or health and well-being benefits. Commonly used methods were the combination of questionnaires with either on-site visual recording of elements or GIS data. Links between social and physical data were usually established either by using statistical tools or by overlaying different thematic maps. Compared to the large number of variables assessed in most studies, the significant effects in the end were relatively few, not consistent across the studies and largely dependent on the context they were seen in. Studies focused on aesthetic and recreational services, while spiritual, educational and inspirational services were not considered when creating links to spatially explicit ecological structures. We conclude that an improvement and harmonization of methodologies, cross-country studies and an expansion of this line of research to a wider range of services and more user groups could help clarify relationships and thereby increase applicability for urban management and planning.     

Adults’ motivation for bringing their children to park playgrounds

Children's independent access to the outdoors is often restricted by parents, making young children dependent on adult motivation for visits. Since access to play in nature can be beneficial to children's development and health, this study examines the accompanying adults’ motivational factors for bringing their children to playgrounds in urban green spaces. The study used on-site questionnaires to collect data in six public park playgrounds in the U.S. and Denmark, to reveal cultural similarities and differences.The results show that the respondents have different motivations for going to a park playground. The Danish respondents find it most important to be together with their children, while the American respondents find it most important that their children are physically active whilst being there. Other results show that different factors can influence both frequency of visits and length of stays. For Danish respondents, location is very important. Pleasing green surroundings and a nearby location tends to result in more frequent visits. All respondents stay longer and visit more often if they like the social atmosphere of the playground. However, male respondents, who are more active with their children than female respondents, have shorter stays if they dislike the variety of play equipment.Based on the results of this paper, suggestions are made as to how designers, planners and park managers can implement the results into practice, with the aim of increasing adults’ motivation for taking their children to park playgrounds.