“No place for wilderness”: Urban parks and the assembling of neoliberal urban environmental governance

For well over a decade, urban political ecology has been concerned with the neoliberalization of infrastructure as a key site of struggle in the reproduction of urban space. While urban forests, trees, and parks have not featured as prominently in that literature as other resources (e.g., water), they are increasingly managed and promoted as a form of “green” infrastructure by city governments eager to ally themselves with new environmentally-oriented framings of the modern city. Yet, the relationship between these new forms of green infrastructure and the neoliberalization of the city, in particular their ability to enable new ways of taking about the city and nature, and to constrain others, has been understudied. In this paper, I examine the ways in which urban parks are enrolled in political struggles to reorient the techniques of urban governance toward entrepreneurialism as the only viable model for economic development. Through a case study of Philadelphia's Fairmount Park System, I examine a series of events during the previous three decades in which Fairmount Park has become subject to this reorientation toward entrepreneurialism. Specifically, I examine how parks, no longer treated as spaces of “nature”, have been reframed as self-supporting constituents of a business-minded urbanism, promotional tools for the attraction of new labor to the city, and a reinforcement of the notion of entrepreneurialism as the inevitable urban development strategy for the 21st century. Yet, I also argue that these transformations are always in a process of negotiation. Even as parks become subject to these dominating discourses, new park construction is a site in which the conceptual assumptions that underpin neoliberal urban policy aren’t frictionlessly transferred from one instance to another but, even when successful, require significant work to overcome competing visions of urban nature.     

Comparison of bird diversity between temperate floodplain forests and urban parks

Biodiversity in urban green areas has been widely explored in several bird studies because birds are known to be important bio-indicators. Many studies have investigated the different responses of bird communities to urbanization and land use changes in urban environments. However, there are still important knowledge gaps related to the impacts of the heterogeneity, spatial structure, and connectivity of green areas on avian diversity. Such information is needed for sustainable urban planning. In this study, we focused on the comparison of bird communities between urban parks in the heritage city of Olomouc and hardwood floodplain forests in the vicinity of the city. The results of the study indicate the high importance of urban parks for the maintenance of bird diversity even though urban parks are man-made habitats. The results highlight the importance of some native vegetation structures in urban parks (old trees, bush ecotones) for maintaining urban bird biodiversity. Some implications of the results can be widely used as a decision support tool for the management of urban green areas and for the planning of ecological networks in urban landscapes.     

Perceptions of parks and urban derelict land by landscape planners and residents

As urban green spaces are important for residential satisfaction, human preferences are a key criterion in their design. However, preferences may vary between landscape planners and residents, which may result in differences between residents’ demands and the actual design. With urban derelict land becoming an important part of the urban green infrastructure, information about the perception and acceptance by residents compared to formal urban parks is important for their planning and design. It was thus examined how different types of urban green spaces are perceived by landscape planners and residents. Criteria for the classification of green spaces used by both participant groups were compared, as were the criteria that influenced preference.Participants sorted and rated photographs of parks and urban derelict land in two different tasks. Hierarchical cluster analyses and multidimensional scaling analyses were used to characterize the participants’ perceptual space. By conducting multiple regression analyses the resulting perceptual dimensions were related to preference.The identified perceptual criteria used to distinguish green spaces were degree of canopy closure, artificiality vs. naturalness, prospect, physical accessibility, and beauty. For residents, the degree of canopy closure was the most important criterion for classification; for landscape planners, it was artificiality. Preferences varied between groups: whereas landscape planners preferred rather natural areas with low accessibility and high species richness, the residents showed a greater preference for formal parks.As a practical implication, the study suggests that residents generally accept urban derelict land as recreational areas if a minimum of maintenance and accessibility is provided. When designing green spaces, landscape planners may consider these differences in their preferences compared to residents.     

Ecological disturbances due to high cutback in the green infrastructure of Karachi: Analyses of public perception about associated health problems

This paper evaluates the changes to the green infrastructure of the megacity of Karachi, Pakistan, occurring during a period of rapid development, involving extensive loss of trees and green spaces since 2000, occurring as a consequence of road widening and improvements to the city's transport infrastructure, aggravated by a series of cyclones, involving further tree loss and which has led to numerous ecological problems in the city, assessing how the effect of the reduction of Karachi's green infrastructure has impacted both the reality and the perception of human health conditions. It uses medium-resolution satellite images classified for land use and land cover (LULC) data extraction and detailed field surveys to map the extent of change; structured questionnaires are used to identify the perception of selected, targeted groups regarding the state of Karachi's urban green infrastructure and perceived human health conditions. Findings indicate that the public perception of green space functionality or presence does not equate with the remote sensing and field mapping results, which show a dramatic loss. The need to develop a comprehensive urban greening strategy, which considers the needs and priorities of the population, is identified. The impact of such a strategy in terms of increased frequency of visits to green sites and associated increase in the physical activity of the people to improve overall physical health is discussed in relation to the general development of Karachi.     

The relationship between the distribution and use patterns of parks and their spatial accessibility at the city level: A case study from Tehran,Iran

Parks are recognised as important elements of urban green infrastructure and for providing many benefits to city residents. In countries where urban growth is unplanned and sprawling, green space provision falls behind, inadequate amounts are provided or spaces are not located in the most effective places. Tehran, the capital of Iran, has experienced huge growth in population and corresponding sprawl in recent years. There has been no study of the effectiveness of parks as part of the range of green spaces in the city − their location, accessibility within the urban structure, relationship to the socio-demographic character of the population, amount per capita or quality and condition. Using a combination of existing data supplemented by new data from site surveys, this study firstly looked at the citywide scale of public open space in relation to population and socio-economic patterns. Second, a representative sample of 16 parks was examined in terms of their accessibility within the urban street structure using space syntax. The syntactical results were correlated with several different aspects of each park collected and rated on a 1–5 scale. The results showed a wide range of availability of parks with no specific pattern related to whether the district is better off or poor. The data on green space per district was often heavily biased by the presence of large areas of forest park or non-recreational land which gives a false picture.Many of the best parks are poorly integrated into the street network and found in the better off districts yet are very popular because they are “destination” parks in cooler, hilly areas. Poorly integrated parks in the inner city districts tended to show lower levels of maintenance, were often little used and had vandalism. Much more attention is needed to provide green space in an equitable way.     

How do urban park features affect cultural ecosystem services: Quantified evidence for design practices

Cultural ecosystem services (CES) in urban parks are associated with nature contact willingness and health outcomes of urban residents. However, practical knowledge on how to manage urban park features to enhance CES is still lacking, especially on more detailed scales. This study developed a practice-oriented workflow for exploring design-related indicators that affect CES by considering four aspects of urban park features, including distance to elements, density of elements, land cover proportion, and landscape diversity. Then the workflow was implemented in a case study by taking six urban parks in Beijing as study areas. Three CES types were identified with outdoor social media images, including recreation value, aesthetic value, and social interaction value. Statistical analyses indicated that a combination of the four aspects of urban park features within a specific service radius was the most significant factor in explaining CES. The importance of design-related indicators for enhancing different CES types was also identified. Density of facilities, proportion of tree canopy-shaded ground, and richness of land cover types were proved important for all the three CES types and therefore could be concerned in urban park design practices. Based on these findings, this study further proposed landscape site design strategies and three adaptive design cases for enhancing different CES types, which could provide evidence-based and practical solutions for managers and landscape architects.     

A walk on the wild side: Perceptions of roadside vegetation beyond trees

Urban nature is of vital importance for human well-being in an increasingly urbanized world. Despite the wide variety of urban greenspaces, previous research has mostly focussed on parks and in particular presence of trees. Although streets are fundamental urban structures and offer an array of green elements beyond trees, the perception and valuation of other kinds of roadside vegetation by urban residents is understudied so far. This study explores the range of roadside vegetation and associated ecosystem services perceived by city dwellers in densely populated inner city districts of two German cities. Further, we explored how wild-grown roadside vegetation is valued by interviewees. Results confirmed the important role of trees but also demonstrated that city dwellers perceive a variety of cultivated and “wild” green components other than trees. Respondents attached a wide range of meanings and values to roadside greenery and showed a surprisingly high awareness of associated ecosystem services. Wild urban roadside vegetation met with high approval, although planted and maintained vegetation was preferred. Our study illustrated that trees and other elements of roadside vegetation fulfil important functions in the view of the public. For many respondents, ecological and economical functions of roadside vegetation were more important than orderliness. This indicates opportunities for enhancing the biodiversity of urban streetscapes. As public green spaces are in short supply in many cities, enhancing cultivated and wild roadside vegetation could help to deliver ecosystem services in the areas near where people move and live.     

Perceived personal safety in relation to urban woodland vegetation – A review

Urban woodland vegetation provides people with many aesthetic, ecological and psychological benefits, but can also generate problems concerning people's perception of safety. This paper reviews existing knowledge about perceived personal safety in relation to vegetation, particularly woodland vegetation, in urban green spaces such as parks and residential areas. Individual and social factors, but also vegetation character, maintenance and design, proved to be important for perceived personal safety. Vegetation-related aspects identified as being of particular importance include landscape design, possibilities for overview and control, vegetation density, and vegetation character and maintenance. Vegetation of an open character with low density undergrowth might have positive effects on perceived personal safety without reducing other benefits. Issues for future research include context-based studies to consider several aspects of vegetation and their interactions.     

The potential of school green areas to improve urban green connectivity and multifunctionality

Urban green infrastructure supports resilience in cities and promotes sustainable resource management. Small green areas, including school green areas (SGAs), are an important component of urban green infrastructure, playing a key role in supplying cities with educational services. This article describes how SGAs can amplify an urban green area's connectivity and multifunctionality. The analysis was performed in Bucharest as a case study. A survey based on questionnaires was used to obtain data regarding green spaces within public schools. A total of 411 administrators from 461 public schools participated in the survey for a response rate of 89.1%. Information from the questionnaires was augmented with spatial data of SGAs and public green spaces, i.e., parks and city gardens. Using parametric and nonparametric statistical analysis, we first identified the variables that determine an SGA's presence and size. Potential connectivity assessment results showed that most of the schools that lack or have small-sized SGAs have the possibility to cover their green space deficit by developing activities within nearby public green spaces. A structural connectivity assessment of SGAs toward other public urban green areas revealed that SGAs are an important element of the urban environment by serving as stepping stones to species flow. The multifunctionality of the SGAs was emphasized through the educational services they provide, being involved in pupils’ daily activities. The increased connectivity and multifunctionality of urban green infrastructure through small, specialized green areas, such as SGAs, is an indicator of the fact that such areas can be used to ameliorate the deficit of green space in major urban areas.     

COVID-19 pandemic changes the recreational use of Moscow parks in space and time: Outcomes from crowd-sourcing and machine learning

The limited access to urban green spaces during the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on the human-nature interaction in cities and human well-being. Number of visitors to green areas, initially declined due to imposed restrictions, was restored after they were lifted as established by several studies across the globe However, little is still known about changes in behavior and preferences of park visitors in the post-COVID time. In this study, we investigated spatial-temporal patterns of recreational activities in the three urban parks in Moscow (Russia) prior, during and after the COVID-19 lockdown (in 2019 and 2020). The selected parks represent two different types: a centrally located park with much infrastructure and open landscapes (Gorky Park) and parks located at the outskirts of the city center with a more forested landscape and little infrastructure (Timiryazevski and Sokolniki parks). Recreational activities were identified based on the analysis of social media photos using machine-learning algorithms. As expected, park closures during lockdown resulted in overall decrease in the number of taken photos. After the parks were re-opened, however, the number of photos did not grow immediately. The number of photos only restored after almost three months, and the visiting peak shifted to autumn. Differences between parks were related to the type of the park and its landscape structure. The lowest decrease in the number of photos was observed for the Timiryazevsky park – a semi-natural green area, while the centrally located Gorky Park was the most affected, likely due to the strictest control measures. In comparison to 2019, photos in 2020 were more evenly distributed across the area in all the three parks. Besides, ‘natural’ areas became the main attractors for the visitors - photos under ‘nature observation’ category became the most popular. Spatial distribution of the recreational activities in post-lockdown period was characterized by larger distances between photos, likely corresponding to the social distancing. COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the value of green areas for citizens, but also changed their recreational preferences and overall behavior in parks. The observed shift from high density of visitors around entertainments and attractions in 2019 to a more homogeneous and less dense distribution along the natural zones in 2020 reveals a new pattern in visitors behavior and preference, which shall be considered in spatial planning of the parks. Increasing availability of natural green areas and their integration in urban green infrastructures can become the most relevant policy to consider the crucial role of urban nature as a source of resilience in turbulent times.     

Green infrastructure inequality in the context of COVID-19: Taking parks and trails as examples

Urban green infrastructures play a critical role in enhancing the well-being of residents, yet their equitable access remains a concern, particularly during the COVID-19 outbreak. There is a lack of knowledge on how people respond to the pandemic regarding the usage of green infrastructure in cities. This paper explores the shifts in visitation to parks and trails, two popular types of green infrastructures in Salt Lake County, Utah, by analyzing the results of a survey conducted during the pandemic. Our conceptualization considers personal and neighborhood level factors, including personal socioeconomic status, existing inequalities of green infrastructures, urban form, and neighborhood conditions. People who reside close to the city center tend to go to parks more often, while those living in urban edges use trails more. Visiting green infrastructures less often is more likely in areas with higher COVID-19 infection rates. The regression results confirm the importance of neighborhood level factors and illustrate the intricate elements influencing people's decisions to visit different green infrastructures during the pandemic, which shows non-linear relationships. Wealthier, white, and younger people seem to enjoy green infrastructures more often, leading to the concern of amplified inequality. Higher COVID-19 cases result in higher demands for green infrastructures, which are not fulfilled during the pandemic, especially for vulnerable communities, leading to spatial exclusion. The findings highlight the importance of smart growth, including compact development, public transit, and pocket parks, in promoting the urban resilience of park and trail visits, as they may provide more opportunities for access and alternatives to green infrastructures even in the context of the pandemic.     

Citizens’ perception of and satisfaction with urban forests and green space: Results from selected Southeast European cities

In this paper the results of the first comprehensive study on perception of and satisfaction with urban forests and green space in seven Southeast European cities are presented. The aims of the paper are to analyse 1) citizen perceptions of the current state of urban forests and green space in their cities, 2) to what extent current urban forests and green space meet their needs and how this can be improved. A cross-sectional study was conducted by using a common face-to-face survey questionnaire. Respondents were selected based on census data though a stratified sampling procedure by taking into account age, gender and city district (n = 384 in each city). The results showed that citizens genuinely care for urban forests and green space in their cities, but are not satisfied with their current state. The respondents found issues related to misbehaviour of other users, the presence and quality of facilities, as well as the presence and quality of management or maintenance the most pressing. There were more statistically significant differences than similarities between cities. Socioeconomic variables explained perceptions only to some extent. Citizens were very supportive of educational campaigns about the importance of urban forests and green space as well as of better enforcement of the existing regulations though having more community wardens that were expected to tackle current unsatisfactory situations. Urban planning and urban forest and green space management in these cities are facing many problems characteristic for post-socialist countries. Study findings are expected to contribute to decision making in urban planning and natural resource management.     

Natural or artificial? Exploring perceived restoration potential of community parks in Winter city

Urban community parks, as widely distributed and frequently used small public urban green spaces, play an essential role in meeting the growing needs of residents for recovery. However, previous studies focus on the restorative benefits of nature and have rarely measured the restoration of winter scenes and artificial scenes. This paper selects a typical small community park in the winter city of China and studies how landscape elements affect restorative benefits through the setting of seasonal virtual scenes. Respondents were asked to rate natural, dynamic and seasonal virtual scenes in terms of sense of being away, extent, fascination, compatibility, and restorative potential. The results show plants with rich layers and large coverage areas have a significant positive impact on human perception of recovery, vitality facilities have no significant impact on perceived recovery, and the number of active people has a significant negative impact on perceived recovery. The plant landscape in winter and summer has the same effect on attention recovery, and seasonally induced changes in plant vision can enhance restorative benefits.     

Assessment of joint soil ecosystem services supply in urban green spaces: A case study in Northern Italy

The multiple functions of urban soils secure the supply of ecosystem services to the urban population, but they are seldom taken into account in current urban planning. The purpose of this study is to highlight the multifunctionality of the soils of urban green spaces and to assess the influence of different types of urban green (i.e. parks and gardens, roadside green and agricultural fields) on the joint supply of soil-based ecosystem services. In a case study area in the city of Carpi (NE Italy), we focused on a set of soil functions underpinning ecosystem services and on possible synergies and trade-offs between them. We surveyed and sampled 19 urban green areas to assess the following soil functions: biological fertility, potential habitat for organisms, water regulation and storage, soil buffering capacity and carbon stock. Results showed differences and trends in the bundles of ecosystem services provided by the soils of urban green areas, highlighting the relevance of soil disturbance and vegetation cover density in affecting soil functions. For biological indicators, results showed a negative significant correlation to CaCO₃ content, which is associated with the degree of soil disturbance, and that soils in urban areas do not always have compromised soil fauna and may provide the same level of biological quality as agricultural soils or forests.     

Subjective perception of noise exposure in relation to urban green space availability

Noise pollution has been recognized as one of major threats to the health of urban residents. Increasing green space availability can create a natural buffer to the adverse effects of living in an urban environment. These positive effects of urban green space can be directly related to an objective reduction of noise levels and – indirectly – to the subjective perception of noise exposure. In our study carried out in Lodz, Poland, we explored the relationship between objective noise levels and the subjective perception of noise exposure by urban residents in relation to urban green space availability. We refer to objective noise exposure expressed as GIS modelled L_den derived from noise maps (compliant with the Environmental Noise Directive, 2002/49/EC), and subjective (self-reported) perception of noise exposure as declared in a questionnaire-based survey. We compared the percentage of green space in a buffer, the objectively measured noise level, and the perceived exposure to noise to find the most appropriate radius of the green space buffer. We decided to choose the green space coverage which is not correlated with an objective noise level to avoid potential multicollinearity in regression models. This contrasts with most studies, in which the radius of the buffer is set a priori. We thus compared the selected buffer of green space coverage – 300 m (representing green space availability) – with perceived noise exposure. We used the spatial error probit model to differentiate the impacts of objective and subjective noise indicators, at the same time including also the factor of green space availability. We found out that the direct effect of objectively measured noise levels, education, the presence of noisy neighbours, and building characteristics were the most important variables influencing the self-reported perception of noise by urban residents. The indirect effect of green space availability on noise perception was not strong, yet statistically significant. Although our study does not provide clear-cut evidence, it indicates that the indirect, psychological effects of urban green spaces can positively affect the life satisfaction of urban residents.     

The landscape of urban cemeteries in Beirut: Perceptions and preferences

Cemeteries constitute some of oldest and largest green and open spaces in Beirut. With the rapid densification of the city, and the extensive loss of green space, understanding the potential of these sites, as multifunctional landscapes, is critical for the health and sustainability of the city. Few studies on cemeteries have investigated the social and recreational values of these specific spaces, focusing mainly on the observation of the existing users and their current activities on site. As far as we know, none have examined how potential users may perceive them and what they may see as attractive in them. This exploratory study aims to investigate different perceptions of urban cemeteries in Beirut and identify preferred characteristics and landscape features that render them attractive green spaces. Face-to face interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire and a photo-sorting exercise were conducted with 29 participants. Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed that not all cemeteries are perceived in the same way and that the presence of greenery, stewardship through organization, maintenance and care, as well as restorative qualities linked to privacy and the sense of being away from the city, were main criteria for positive perception and preference. Crowdedness, unequal treatment of dead and intrusion from surrounding context, both physically and ideologically were perceived as negative constructs and were linked to the least preferred images of cemeteries. While religious affiliations did not seem to impact preference or perception, the presence of political influence through signs and symbols was highly condemned within urban cemeteries.     

Producing edible landscapes in Seattle's urban forest

Over the next decades, green infrastructure initiatives such as tree planting campaigns, and ecological restoration will dramatically change the species composition, species distribution and structure of urban forests across the United States. These impending changes are accompanied by a demand for urban public spaces where people can engage in practices such as gleaning, gardening, and livestock production. This article analyzes the institutional framework that undergirds efforts in Seattle, Washington to normalize the production and use of edible landscapes. We focus attention on the role of grassroots fruit gleaning groups and highlight their bridging function between Seattle's agriculture and forestry policy arenas, creating an entry point for re-conceptualizing urban forests as sites of production. We conclude that a vision of urban forests as providers of goods as well as services may provide a more solid foundation for achieving urban sustainability than the current “hands off” approach to urban forest management. Gleaning and gathering in urban wild and cultivated landscapes provides opportunities for inhabitants to steward public natural resources and interact deeply with nature.     

Challenges of urban green space management in the face of using inadequate data

Effective urban planning, and urban green space management in particular, require proper data on urban green spaces. The potential of urban green spaces to provide benefits to urban inhabitants (ecosystem services) depends on whether they are managed as a comprehensive system of urban green infrastructure, or as isolated islands falling under the responsibility of different stakeholders. Meanwhile, different urban green space datasets are based on different definitions, data sources, sampling techniques, time periods and scales, which poses important challenges to urban green infrastructure planning, management and research. Using the case study of Lodz, the third largest city in Poland, and an additional analysis of 17 other Polish cities, we compare data from five publicly available sources: 1) public statistics, 2) the national land surveying agency, 3) satellite imagery (Landsat data), 4) the Urban Atlas, 5) the Open Street Map. The results reveal large differences in the total amount of urban green spaces in the cities as depicted in different datasets. In Lodz, the narrowly interpreted public statistics data, which are aspatial, suggest that green spaces account for only 12.8% of city area, while the most comprehensive dataset from the national land surveying agency reveals the figure of 61.2%. The former dataset, which excludes many types of green spaces (such as arable land, private and informal green spaces), is still the most commonly used. The analysis of the 17 other cities confirms the same pattern. This results in broader institutional failures related to urban green infrastructure planning, management, and research, including a lack of awareness of green space quality (e.g. connectivity) and benefits (ecosystem services), and the related political disregard for urban green spaces. Our comparison suggests that a better understanding of green space data sources is necessary in urban planning, and especially when planning urban green infrastructure.     

Urban land use types contribute to grassland conservation: The example of Berlin

Urbanisation is an important driver of biodiversity loss, also contributing to habitat loss and fragmentation of grasslands at the urban-rural interface. While urban green spaces are known to include many grassland habitats, it is uncertain to what extent urban land use types harbour grasslands of special conservation interest and whether patch characteristics and connectivity of these differ from grasslands on agricultural land. By relating the city-wide biotope mapping to the land use mapping of Berlin, Germany, we assessed (1) to which specific urban land use types the major grassland biotope types belong, (2) differences in patch characteristics and connectivity, and (3) the conservation value of grassland patches at a typological level by means of their legal protection status. Grasslands cover 5% of Berlin's surface, and 43% of that area is assigned to legally protected grassland types. The majority of legally protected grassland (71%) lies on urban land opposed to 29% on agricultural land. Airports and historic parks, which only cover 2% of land in Berlin, contain one-third of all protected dry grasslands. Wet grassland is more confined to agricultural land. In airports and agricultural areas, grassland patches are larger but of a more complex shape than those in historic parks. In airports, grassland patches show greater connectivity as they are situated in grassland-dominated surroundings. Grassland in historic parks appears to be more vulnerable due to smaller patch sizes and higher fragmentation. The example of Berlin demonstrates that the urban green infrastructure can clearly contribute to grassland conservation and may thus partially compensate for the decline of traditional grasslands in cultural landscapes. It will be important to involve residents and landowners in urban grassland conservation and management because most grassland of special conservation interest (57%) was found outside of conservation areas.     

Supplying urban ecosystem services through multifunctional green infrastructure in the United States

This paper summarizes a strategy for supplying ecosystem services in urban areas through a participatory planning process targeting multifunctional green infrastructure. We draw from the literature on landscape multifunctionality, which has primarily been applied to agricultural settings, and propose opportunities to develop urban green infrastructure that could contribute to the sustainable social and ecological health of the city. Thinking in terms of system resilience, strategies might focus on the potential for green infrastructure to allow for adaptation and even transformation in the face of future challenges such as climate change, food insecurity, and limited resources. Because planning for multiple functions can be difficult when many diverse stakeholders are involved, we explored decision support tools that could be applied to green infrastructure planning in the early stages, to engage the public and encourage action toward implementing a preferred solution. Several specific ecosystem services that could be relevant for evaluating current and future urban green spaces include: plant biodiversity, food production, microclimate control, soil infiltration, carbon sequestration, visual quality, recreation, and social capital. Integrating such ecosystem services into small-scale greening projects could allow for creativity and local empowerment that would inspire broader transformation of green infrastructure at the city level. Those cities committing to such an approach by supporting greening projects are likely to benefit in the long run through the value of ecosystem services for urban residents and the broader public.