EFFECTS OF SALINITY STRESS ON PHYSIOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS WHEAT AND BARLEY CULTIVARS

An experiment with factorial arrangement of treatments on a randomized complete block (RCB) design basis with three replications was conducted in a greenhouse during Spring 2010 to investigate changes in sodium ion (Na⁺), potassium ion (K⁺), Na⁺/K⁺ and to determine proline, protein content, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) of four wheat and four barley cultivars. Three salt levels {1, control (no salt), 7, and 13 dS m^?1 [2.5 and 5 g salt [sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) in 1:1 ratio] per kg of soil, respectively]} were used in this investigation. Salt stress treatments were applied 4 weeks after planting (at 2 leaf stage). Leaf samples were taken four weeks after imposition of salt treatment. The results showed that salinity caused an increased in proline and protein content, and SOD in all wheat and barley cultivars. The highest proline and protein content of barley and wheat cultivars at all salinity levels were observed in ‘Nimrooz’ and ‘Bam’ cultivars, respectively. At all salinity levels, wheat and barley cultivars ‘Kavir’ and ‘Nimrooz’, respectively, had the lowest Na⁺ content. Barley cultivar ‘Kavir’ and wheat cultivar ‘Bam’ had higher K⁺ and K⁺:Na⁺ ratios. This might be related to salt tolerance in these two cultivars. Wheat and barley cultivars showed differences with regard to proline, protein, and SOD content, Na⁺, K⁺, and K⁺:Na⁺ ratio, indicating existence of genetic diversity among the cultivars. These findings indicated that higher K⁺, K⁺:Na⁺ ratio, proline, protein, and SOD content could be the key factors, which offer advantage to barley over wheat for superior performance under saline conditions.     

EFFECTS OF SALINITY AND SOIL ZINC APPLICATION ON GROWTH AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PISTACHIO SEEDLINGS

The effects of four salinity levels [0, 1000, 2000, and 3000 mg sodium chloride (NaCl) kg^?1 soil] and three zinc (Zn) levels [0, 5, and 10 mg kg^?1 soil as zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄.7 H₂O)] on growth and chemical composition of pistachio seedlings (Pistacia vera L.) cv. ‘Badami’ were studied in a calcareous soil under greenhouse conditions in a completely randomized design with three replications. After 26 weeks, the dry weights of leaves, stems and roots were measured and the total leaf area determined. Salinity decreased leaf, stem, and root dry weights and leaf area, while this effect diminished with increasing Zn levels. Zn fertilization increased leaf, stem and root Zn concentrations, leaf potassium (K) concentration, and stem and root sodium (Na) concentrations, while decreased leaf Na concentration, and stem and root K concentrations. Salinity stress decreased leaf, stem, and root Zn concentrations, and leaf K concentration, while salinity increased leaf, stem and root Na concentrations, and stem and root K concentrations. Proline accumulation increased with increasing salinity levels, whereas the reverse trend was observed for reducing sugar contents. Zn application decreased proline concentration but increased reducing sugar contents. These changes might have alleviated the adverse effects of salinity stress.     

SELECTIVITY AND PARTITIONING OF POTASSIUM AND SODIUM IN SESAME

Net uptake and partitioning of sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) in plants of two sesame cultivars (Sesamum indicum cv. ‘PB-1’ and cv. ‘UCR’) exposed to 20 mM sodium chloride (NaCl) were studied over a period of 28 days. Both cultivars showed a marked discrimination between K⁺ and Na⁺ during uptake. The reduction of K⁺ in the plants caused by the NaCl treatment was of similar magnitude in the two cvs. The cv. ‘UCR’ showed lower Na⁺ concentrations in the shoot tissues than ‘PB-1’ and K⁺/Na⁺ selectivity ratios were higher in cv. ‘UCR’ than in cv. ‘PB-1’. At the last sampling on day 28 there was a marked decrease of shoot growth in cv. ‘PB-1’ in comparison to the cv. ‘UCR’. Leaves of cv. ‘PB-1’ showed clear toxic symptoms, while those of cv. ‘UCR’ did not. It is concluded that Na⁺ exclusion from the shoot contributes to salt tolerance of sesame, cv. ‘UCR’.     

Interactive Effect of Soil Salinity and Water Stress on Growth and Chemical Compositions of Pistachio Nut Tree

ABSTRACT

The effects of three sodium chloride (NaCl) levels (0, 1200, and 2400 mg kg^{? 1} soil) and three irrigation intervals (3, 7, and 14 d) on the growth and chemical composition of two Pistacia vera rootstocks (‘Sarakhs’ and ‘Qazvini’) were investigated under greenhouse conditions. Eight-week-old pistachio seedlings were gradually exposed to salt stress which afterward, water stress was initiated. At any irrigation interval, plant height and shoot and root dry weights of both rootstocks were reduced with increasing salinity. However, increasing irrigation intervals alleviated the adverse effects of soil salinity. A negative relationship observed between relative shoot growth and electrical conductivity of soil saturation extract (EC_e) confirmed the above findings. Under 3-d irrigation interval, the EC_e required to cause a 50% growth reduction was lower than those under 7- and/or 14-d irrigation intervals. Shoot and root chemical analyses indicated that the salinity as well as irrigation regime affected the concentration and distribution of sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), and chloride (Cl^?) in pistachio. The concentration of Na⁺, K⁺ and C1^? ions increased with a rise in NaCl level, and was generally declined with increasing irrigation interval. Based on plant height, shoot and root dry weights and the concentrations of Na⁺, K⁺, and C1^? in the plant tissues, at lowest irrigation intervals ‘Sarakhs’ shows a higher sensitivity to soil salinity than ‘Qazvini’, but with increasing irrigation interval, ‘Sarakhs’ and ‘Qazvini’ can be classified as resistant and sensitive to salinity, respectively.     

EFFECTS OF SALINITY AND CALCIUM ON THE GROWTH AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PISTACHIO SEEDLINGS

Poor quality of irrigation water (high salinity) has reduced the yields of pistachio over recent years, especially in Kerman. The effects of four salinity levels [0, 30, 60, and 90 mM sodium chloride (NaCl)] and three calcium (Ca) levels [0, 0.5, and 1 mM Ca as calcium nitrate (Ca(NO₃)₂.4H₂O)] on growth and chemical composition of pistachio seedlings cv. ‘Badami’ were studied in sand culture under greenhouse conditions in completely randomized design (CRD) with four replications. After 170 days, leaf area, leaf number, shoot and root dry weights were determined. Also shoot and root sodium (Na), potassium (K), Ca, and magnesium (Mg) concentrations were measured. Results showed salinity decreased all growth parameters. Ca application increased shoot and root Ca concentrations and root K concentration, while Ca application decreased shoot K concentration and shoot and root Mg concentrations. Salinity decreased shoot Ca, root K, and root Mg concentrations, while salinity increased shoot and root total sodium uptake, and shoot and root Cl concentrations.     

Investigative approaches associated with plausible chemical and biochemical markers for screening wheat genotypes under salinity stress

Twenty genotypes of wheat resulting from different crossings between some wheat parental lines were compared for salt stress (control and gradually increasing salinity). Ion content in root, shoot, and flag leaves and also the root and shoot dry weights were measured. Based on these results, eight genotypes among the twenty were selected as susceptible, semi-tolerant, and tolerant genotypes for evaluating their biochemical characteristics. Results indicated that concentration of sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) in shoot, root, and flag leaves of stressed plants were, respectively, higher and lower than that in the non-stressed plants. Overall, salinity stress caused reductions in root and shoot dry weights and relative water content (RWC), but enhancement in pigments content. Concentrations of the total carbohydrate, total protein, and soluble proline were higher in plants under salt stress condition. Salinity stress induced higher production in hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and also higher activity of catalase (CAT) and ascorbic peroxidase (APX) as antioxidant enzymes, but lower activity of peroxidase (POD). Genotypes 4s, Arg, and 386dh had generally higher enzymatic activity and other tolerant indices, and hence they can be introduced as tolerant genotypes for more study by the plant breeders. On the other hand, genotype 278s was most susceptible based on the most results.     

INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF SALINITY AND PHOSPHORUS NUTRITION ON PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF TWO BARLEY SPECIES

Salinity is one of the most important agricultural problems in Iran. The effect of different levels of salinity and phosphorus on shoot length, root and shoot fresh and dry weight, nutrient elements (sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), phosphorus (P) and chloride (Cl^?), proline and soluble sugar contents of barley were investigated. Two cultivars of barley, Hordeum murinum (wild resistant germplasm) and Hordeum vulgar, variety Afzal were treated in vegetative stage under hydroponics condition in a factorial arrangement based on completely randomized block (CRB) design with four levels of salinity [0, 100, 200 and 300 mM sodium chloride (NaCl)] and three levels of phosphorus (15, 30 and 55 μm L^?1) with three replications. By increasing salinity, all the measured parameters, except sodium (Na⁺) content were reduced. Furthermore, with increased in phosphorus levels from 15 to 55 μm, Na⁺ content of the plant shoots decreased, but length, fresh and dry weights of roots and shoots and K⁺, P, Cl^?, proline, and soluble sugars content of the shoots increased. The results indicated that accumulation of mineral ions for osmotic adjustment and restriction of Na⁺ accumulation in shoots were involved in phosphorus enhancement of the salt tolerance of barley. Thus, it seems that in saline soils, where there is no possibility for soil leaching and amending, application of phosphorus fertilizers can lead to a satisfactory growth and production in barely yield.     

越冬期间小麦的光合作用及其对生长发育的影响

利用14 C同位素示踪技术研究了冬小麦越冬期间的光合特性及其对冬小麦生长发育的影响。结果表明 ,越冬期间的冬小麦能够吸收、同化14 CO2 ,并进行转运 ;其同化产物的 60 %用于越冬期的呼吸消耗 ,约 40 %用于返青后的生长发育 ,其中少量的光合产物参与了穗部产量的形成。     

黄土性土壤K+吸附、解吸动力学研究

采用连续液流法研究了５种黄土性土壤吸附、解吸Ｋ＾＋的动力学性质。结果表明：（１）供试土壤Ｋ＾＋吸附、解吸反应分别在１６－２４及２６－６０ｍｉｎ达到平衡。吸附平衡时间及平衡吸附量与ＣＥＣ及粘粒含量有关。（２）平衡前不同时段的吸附解吸速度及吸附解吸率与反应时间ｌｎｔ间存在极显著的线性关系。其中反应速度直线和解吸率直线的斜率、初始反应速度及初始解吸率均与ＣＥＣ及粘粒含量密切相关。（３）一级反应方程和Ｅｌ     

Na_2SO_4和NaHCO_3对生菜生长的影响

研究了营养液中不同浓度Na2 SO4 和NaHCO3处理对生菜生长的影响。结果表明 ,随着两种盐浓度增加 ,生菜叶面积和地上部干重逐渐减小 ;NaHCO3处理对地上部生长的抑制更显著。Na2 SO4 处理植株吸水量降低 ,表明存在渗透逆境 ;NaHCO3处理植株吸水量不受影响 ,但营养液pH值增加迅速。生菜品种L 2比P对盐胁处理更敏感。     

Genotypic variation in rice for grain yield and quality as affected by salt-affected field conditions

A field experiment was conducted under two natural field conditions at the Research Farm (normal soil) and Proka Farm (salt-affected soil) of The Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences (ISES), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, to evaluate the performance of 11 rice genotypes in normal and salt-affected conditions. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The gas exchange attributes were measured at vegetative stage whereas the grain and straw yields and the yield components were recorded at maturity. After harvesting, the ionic parameters including sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) were determined. Afterward, grain quality in terms of length, width, milling recovery, broken fraction, and chalkiness was also determined for the selected genotypes. Salt-affected conditions adversely affected the physiology, yield, and quality of the tested genotypes. The genotypes KS-282 followed by Shaheen Basmati showed significantly higher photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance under both normal and salt-affected conditions, whereas the genotypes 99404 followed by 99417 showed minimum values of gas exchange attributes. The grain and straw yields were the highest in the case of KS-282 at both sites, whereas the lowest grain and straw yields were observed in the case of 99440 followed by 99417 under both normal and salt-affected conditions. Regarding the quality attributes, Super Basmati produced longer grains but with higher broken fraction and lower milling recovery, whereas the reverse was observed in the case of KS-282.     

Growth and acquisition of Na,K and Ca in some elite sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (Lam.) L.] genotypes under salinity stress

Soil salinity is a concern in the wake of climate change challenges due to rising sea levels and coastal salinity in Papua New Guinea. A greenhouse experiment was conducted in Split Plot design, with five elite sweet potato genotypes (main-plot factors) and three levels of sodium chlroide (NaCl) concentrations (sub-plot factors) replicated six times. The vine cuttings of genotype RAB 45 showed very low mortality percentage (33%) at 600 mM NaCl concentration. At salinity level of 200 mM NaCl, aerial dry biomass of the genotypes was inversely but significantly (r = –0.40; p < 0.05) related to the accumulation of sodium (Na⁺) in the tissues. The Na⁺ accumulation in the tissues was antagonistic to the potassium (K⁺) and calcium (Ca²⁺) ions. Among the sweetpotato genotypes, Na⁺/K⁺ ratio decreased in the following order: RAB 45> KAV 11 > Northern Star > DOY 2 > L 46, which was more or less corroborated with the trend in the aerial dry matter.     

乙烯利对木薯某些生理特性的影响

在木薯生长后期,施乙烯利能抑制生长,促进成熟。对新生叶的生长有前控后促的作用。对植株上的叶片能加速黄落和降低呼吸消耗,同时能使叶片的蔗糖酶活性增强,还原糖量增加,光合效率提高,叶片内物质输出量和茎皮层泌乳量增多,并提高块根的淀粉含量。     

Effect of potassium on uptake and translocation of sodium and potassium in Chinese cabbage under NaCl stress

To investigate the influence of potassium (K⁺) on the salinity tolerance of Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis Rupr.) seedlings, the plants were cultured at three K⁺ levels (0, 5, or 10?mM), under normal (0?mM NaCl) and high-salt (100?mM NaCl) conditions. The results indicated that the dry weight of Chinese cabbage increased with the application of K⁺ under salt stress. Addition of K⁺ increased K⁺ concentrations and suppressed sodium (Na⁺) concentration, which eventually increased the K⁺/Na⁺ ratios in roots or shoots. Application of K⁺ enhanced the uptake of K⁺ and suppressed the uptake of Na⁺. Moreover, the ratios of shoot-K⁺/root-K⁺ increased considerably, but the ratios of shoot-Na⁺/root-Na⁺ decreased in response to K⁺ application. It was concluded that the application of K⁺ could enhance the salt stress tolerance in Chinese cabbage because more K⁺ than Na⁺ was absorbed and translocated from roots to shoots.     

AMELIORATIVE EFFECTS OF DI-POTASSIUM HYDROGEN ORTHOPHOSPHATE ON SALT-STRESSED EGGPLANT

To overcome salinity stress, a factorial experiment block design (4 × 7) was done on eggplant cv. ‘Topaz F₁’ to investigate the effects of foliar sprays of di-potassium hydrogen orthophosphate (K₂HPO₄; 0 and 10 mM) on growth, yield and chemical composition under sodium chloride (NaCl; 0 and 50 mM) stress. Sodium chloride treatment produced less vegetative growth, dry matter, total sugar content and fruit yield as compared with those in control. However, free phenols increased in fruit by salinity treatment. Spraying K₂HPO₄ ameliorated the negative effects of salinity on plant growth, fruit yield, and fruit total sugar content. Sodium content increased by salinity and the sodium uptake did not reduce by application of K₂HPO₄. While spraying of K₂HPO₄ lowered the sodium accumulation in fruit. Potassium and calcium content in all plant parts and phosphorus, in shoot only were in the deficient ranges in plants treated with NaCl and these deficiencies were corrected by foliar application of K₂HPO4.     

EFFECTS OF PERENNIAL PEANUT AND COMMON BERMUDAGRASS ON NITROGEN AND WATER UPTAKE OF YOUNG CITRUS TREES

A greenhouse experiment was conducted using a Soil-N Uptake Monitoring (SUM) system to determine nitrogen (N) and water uptake dynamics of citrus (CIT), perennial peanut (PP) (Arachis glabrata Benth), and common bermudagrass (BG) (Cynodon dactylon L.) over time. We also assessed the competition for water and N uptake between citrus and groundcover species and compared citrus N uptake measured using the SUM system with the ¹⁵N method. Nitrogen uptake followed cyclic patterns and was greatest for bermudagrass-based systems, while values were similar for PP and citrus systems. Competition for N uptake did occur during the summer months between citrus and BG, while no obvious competition for N uptake occurred between citrus and PP. Water uptake was greatest for the mixed systems and BG monoculture. Citrus, PP, and BG competed for water during the spring and summer seasons. None of the groundcovers significantly affected overall citrus tree growth. Nitrogen use efficiency was greatest for mixed systems and bermudagrass.     

(土娄)土水分入渗、再分布过程反应性溶质(NH4+)运移特征研究

利用土柱切割法研究Lou土水分入渗、再分布过程反应性溶质（NH4^ )运移特征。在水分入渗初期，土壤剖面溶质分布曲线为斜线，随入渗时间延长，土壤剖面溶质分布曲线上部逐渐出现垂直于横坐标的垂直线段。与水分入渗、再分布相比，溶质（NH4^ )入渗、再分布明显滞后；水分入渗深度增加，水溶质入渗距离比增加，溶质入渗滞后程度增大。入渗液浓度增大，溶质入渗滞后程度及溶质入渗阻滞因子减小，相应的土壤吸持溶质的反应速率常数增大，表观活化自由能减小。不同再分布时间的土壤剖面溶质分布曲线具有交点（溶质再分布等浓度点），且该交点随入渗液浓度增大而加深。水分再分布过程中，溶质再分布等浓度点的土壤溶质吸持量基本不变，而其上部的土壤吸持量减小，下部的土壤吸持量增大。     

INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF SALINITY AND N ON PEPPER (CAPSICUM ANNUUM L.) YIELD,WATER USE EFFICIENCY AND ROOT ZONE AND DRAINAGE SALINITY

The aim of this study was to determine the salt tolerance of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) under greenhouse conditions and to examine the interactive effects of salinity and nitrogen (N) fertilizer levels on yield. The present study shows the effects of optimal and suboptimal N fertilizer levels (270 kg ha^?1 and 135 kg ha^?1) in combination with five different irrigation waters of varying electrical conductivity (EC) (EC_iw = 0.25, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 4.0, and 6.0 dS m^?1) and three replicates per treatment. At optimal N level, yield decreased when the irrigation water salinity was above EC_iw 2 dS m^?1. At the suboptimal N level, a significant decrease in yield occurred only above EC_iw 4 dS m^?1. At high salinity levels the salinity stress was dominant with respect to yield and response was similar for both N levels. Based on the results it can also be concluded that under saline conditions (higher than threshold salinity for a given crop) there is a lesser need for N fertilization relative to the optimal levels established in the absence of other significant stresses.     

NATURAL ABUNDANCES OF 15NITROGEN AND 13CARBON INDICATIVE OF GROWTH AND N2 FIXATION IN POTASSIUM FED LENTIL GROWN UNDER WATER STRESS

Dual natural abundance analysis of ¹⁵Nitrogen (N) and ¹³Carbon (C) isotopes in lentil plants subjected to different soil moisture levels and rates of potassium (K) fertilizer were determined to assess crop performance variability in terms of growth and N₂-fixation (Ndfa). The δ¹⁵N values in lentils ranged from +0.67 to +1.36‰; whereas, those of the N₂-fixed and reference plant were ?0.45 and +2.94‰, respectively. Consequently, the Ndfa% ranged from 45 and 65% of total plant N uptake. Water stress reduced Δ¹³C values. However, K fertilization enhanced whole plant Δ¹³C along with dry matter yield and N₂-fixation. The water stressed plants amended with K fertilizer seemed to be the best treatment because of its highest pod yield, high N balance, and N₂-fixation with low consumption of irrigation water. This illustrates the ecological and economical importance of K fertilizer in alleviating water stress occurring during the post-flowering period of lentil.     

Response of plant yield and leaf pigments to saline conditions: Effectiveness of different rootstocks in melon plants (Cucumis melo L.)

Two varieties of Cucumis melo (Resisto and Arava) were grafted onto three hybrids of Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata cultivars (Shintoza, RS-841 and Kamel). Ungrafted Cucumis melo var. Resisto and var. Arava plants were used as controls. Plants were grown under controlled greenhouse conditions and were constantly fertilized with macro- and micronutrients, supplied with irrigation water rich in Na⁺ and Cl^- Contents of chlorophylls a and b, carotene pigments, Cl^- and total and soluble Na⁺ and K⁺ ions were measured in all the scion parts of the plants. The results showed that grafted plants exhibited differences in the leaf content of Na+ and especially Cl^- in comparison with ungrafted plants. In addition, yield as well as leaf pigments appeared to be good indicators of Cl^- levels in scion parts. It is assumed that grafted plants developed various mechanisms to avoid physiological damage caused by the excessive accumulation of these ions in leaf, including the exclusion of Cl^- ion and/or decrease in Cl^- absorption by the roots and the replacement or substitution of total K⁺ by total Na⁺ in the foliar parts.