Biofilm development in micro-irrigation emitters for wastewater reuse

Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate bioclogging on three types of online emitters using synthetic wastewater filtered at 10 μm (COD = 200 mg L^?1). The three types of emitters were as follows: non-pressure-compensating emitters delivering 2 L h^?1 (NPC2), non-pressure-compensating emitters delivering 4 L h^?1 (NPC4) and pressure-compensating emitters delivering 2.2 L h^?1 (PC). They were plugged on two parallel pipe diameters (16 and 20 mm). Emitter performance was followed by flow rate measurements. The results showed that PC emitters seemed to be more sensitive to clogging than NPC emitters. Biofilm was observed mainly on NPC flow paths and PC membranes; its presence was also confirmed by the assessment of different water quality parameters such as total organic carbon and pH. Experimental results compared with a model designed with computational fluid dynamics Software (ANSYS Fluent^®) showed relations between biofilm development and velocity distribution on NPC flow paths. Finally, pipe diameter also appeared to be a parameter inducing emitter clogging.     

不同管径水平管道气液两相流动数值模拟

为更好了解管道中的气液两相流运动过程,揭示气液在不透明管道中的分布规律及运动形态,提高管道自压输水在实际工程中的安全性.基于已有研究成果,应用Fluent软件进行三维水平管道的数值模拟研究,并分析了不同管径、流速下两相流流态,及压力、流速等各项水力要素的变化.结果表明:三维CFD模拟可较好地展示管道气液两相分布规律;增大液相折算速度可以发生流型的转化,随着管径的增大,气泡流-塞状流的过渡表现为更高的液相折算速度,从80 mm管道中的小于4 m/s过渡到160 mm管道中的4 m/s;随着液相折算速度和管径的减小,由气团引起的压力波动随之减小,其中2.8 m位置处的最大压差由9 439.2,12 826.5 Pa减小到9 136.0 Pa;管道上壁面流速下降梯度高于下壁面,且气泡越大,差值越明显.工程上认为若无法避免输水过程中的气体存在,采用较小的液相折算速度和管径时,由气团引起的压力波动随之变小,认为此时管道更为安全.     

滴头制造偏差对灌水均匀度及毛管造价的影响

为了阐明滴头制造偏差系数、灌水均匀度、毛管直径及毛管造价的内在联系,降低滴灌系统造价、提高灌水均匀度,通过理论推导结合实证计算的方法,系统分析了不同均匀度条件下滴头制造偏差系数极限值,以及滴头制造偏差系数、毛管直径、允许均匀度等三者的关系,并推导出毛管造价计算公式.结果表明:对于长度为100 m的毛管,当Keller均匀系数( EEU)为0.80时,制造偏差系数从0.05增大到0.07和0.11时,毛管造价分别增大8.7％和37.1％;当滴头制造偏差系数为0.03, EEU由0.80增大到0.85,0.90和0.95时,毛管直径分别增大20％,23.5％和56.5％,毛管造价也相应增大20％,53.8％和207.7％;当滴头制造偏差系数为0.05, EEU由0.80增大到0.85和0.90时,毛管直径则分别增大19.3％和32.8％,毛管造价也分别增大17.1％和71.4％;对于 EEU为0.95时,毛管允许最小流量大于平均流量,管径计算无解.在限定值范围内,滴头制造偏差系数和Keller均匀系数的微小增大将直接导致毛管直径和造价急剧增大;滴灌系统设计应选择制造偏差系数小的滴头及合理的灌水均匀度,以达到降低工程造价的目的.     

An assessment of hydraulic design of micro-irrigation systems

The hydraulic design of micro-irrigation systems to achieve high system uniformity has led design engineers to over-design irrigation systems arbitrarily. Commonly used emitter flow variations of 10–20% are equivalent to a uniformity coefficient of about 98-95%, or a coefficient of variation of emitter flow of only 3–7%. The uniformity of a micro-irrigation system is affected by not only hydraulic design but also manufacturer's variation, grouping of emitters, plugging, soil hydraulic characteristics and emitter spacings. Among all the factors affecting the uniformity, the hydraulic design, with an emitter flow variation of 10–20%, produces only a few percent change in uniformity. The manufacturer's variation of micro-irrigation emitters ranges from 2% to 20%. The hydraulic variation will be less significant when an emitter with 10% or more manufacturer's variation is selected. The grouping effect will reduce the coefficient of variation to half or more if four or more emitters can be grouped together. The effect of hydraulic design is also less significant with plugging situations. When there is no plugging, the emitter flow variation from 10% to 20% in hydraulic design will reduce spatial uniformity only about 8% from 93% to 85% when the emitter spacing is designed as half of the wetting diameter in the field. The hydraulic design criterion can be relaxed to 30%v of emitter flow variation, q_var(H), which can still achieve less than 20%v in coefficient of variation, or over 80% of uniformity coefficient in spatial uniformity of a micro-irrigation system     

Dimensional analysis approach to estimate local head losses in microirrigation connectors

Local losses, which affect the uniformity of water application, are often ignored in the design of irrigation systems. Some accessories have no simple, efficient equations to estimate these losses. The main objective of this work was to develop an equation to estimate the local head loss in lateral passage connectors. Fifteen connector/pipe combinations were tested. The connectors were characterized by their internal diameters and dimensions. The local head loss was determined by subtracting the head loss on the connector and pipe from the head loss on the pipe. The parameters affecting the local head loss were defined as dimensionless terms using Buckingham’s theorem. A mathematical model was developed that presented a determination coefficient of 93.31 %. Elements such as the inner diameter of the connector, pipe length, connector, water flow velocity, Reynolds number and Froude number influenced the local head loss in the connectors. The model was compared with the observed data and presented excellent performance. It can be used to calculate the local head loss in lateral passage connectors.     

Eight emitters clogging characteristics and its suitability under on-site reclaimed water drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is the most effective and reliable method for reclaimed water irrigation. The water usually contains a lot of suspended particles, metal salt ions, organisms and microbial communities, which will enhance the possibility of emitter clogging or more complex clogging mechanism. Emitter clogging has become one of  the key problems to the application and popularization of the drip irrigation technology. In this paper, we selected four kinds of pressure-compensating emitters and four kinds of non-pressure-compensating emitters, and executed the experiment of drip irrigation with on-site reclaimed water treated with cyclic activated sludge system (CASS). The emitter discharge ratio variation (Dra), coefficient of uniformity (CU) and clogging rate distribution were analyzed to evaluate the emitter clogging characteristics after eliminating the effect of temperature and pressure on the emitter outflow by data correction. The results showed that Dra and CU varied in three periods as system operation. The beginning of experiment was the fluctuated balance period, Dra and CU recurrent fluctuated in 5 %, and the emitters clogged at some spots after the system run 36–48 h. Then the two parameters varied linearly in 60–108 h, tuning into the initiate linear period, as the non-pressure-compensating emitters got an obvious linear change than the pressure-compensating ones with the gradient changed from ?0.094 to 0.042 and ?0.073 to 0.047, respectively. Some of the emitters have a significant difference on these two parameters at this stage. After the restarting in the second year, Dra and CU decreased sharply. The maximum decrement was, respectively, 9.6 and 10.7 %. Then they varied in line with a greater slope degree as all emitters reached the significant level, the gradient ranges were ?0.176 to 0.115 and ?0.216 to 0.117, respectively. This stage was called the accelerated linear period. Seriously clogged and completely clogged emitters appeared, and both Dra and CU dropped down to 38.7 and 41.5 %. Various degrees of clogged emitters often emerged in the end part of lateral at first then propelled to the head gradually, the completely clogged emitters in the end accounted for more than 73.0 % when the system run 540 h. Comprehensively considered, the pressure-compensating emitters and cusp-shaped saw-tooth non-pressure-compensating emitters with short flow path are recommended in reclaimed water drip irrigation. These researches are aimed to provide references explaining the emitter clogging mechanism of reclaimed water drip irrigation as well as its technological application and popularization.     

Influence of fine particle size and concentration on the clogging of labyrinth emitters

The evolution of drip emitter clogging with labyrinth channel was investigated experimentally to study the fine particle size and concentration effects in the irrigation water. Short-term clogging tests were performed using muddy water containing particles with 8 different sizes (all less than 0.1 mm). The particles used in this study were composed of fine sands, slit and clay. Afterwards, verification tests were conducted to prove the results obtained from short-term clogging tests. The impacts of particle size and particle concentration in muddy water on emitter clogging were analyzed by means of calculating the mean discharge and the Christiansen uniformity coefficient. The results showed that for particles that were smaller than 0.1 mm in diameter, sediment concentration significantly affected clogging. The clogging level of emitters increased with raising the concentration. Especially when the sediment concentration was higher than 1.25 g/L, the impacts became remarkable. On the other hand, the sensitive sediment particle range that could get emitters clogged easily was found. In this study, the sensitive particle range were D6 (0.038–0.034 mm) and D7 (0.034–0.031 mm) The results aim to help in improving drip irrigation methods using water with high sediment concentration and providing experimental data for optimization design of emitter channel.     

微灌田间管网布置优化及参数分析

微灌工程是推进农业节水灌溉的重要手段,合理的田间管网参数设计是水利计算中的重要环节.为此,探索了田间灌水单元小区内满足灌溉管道运行安全的田间管网优化布置方案,建立以单位面积管道投入最低为目标函数且满足管道安全运行要求的双向布置田间管网优化设计数学模型,并应用遗传算法对永舒榆灌区典型区域进行优化计算.与原设计相比,单位面...     

Characterization of the microtube emitters used in a novel micro-sprinkler

The microtube is a simple and cheap emitter that was widely used throughout the world in the early days of drip irrigation. Its length can be adjusted according to the pressure distribution along the lateral line and the discharge from the microtube can be adjusted by its length. This not only counters the pressure loss due to pipe friction but also makes it suitable for undulating and hilly conditions, where pressure in the lateral line varies considerably according to the differences in elevation. This is the major problem facing the designer, i.e., emitter flow changes as the acting pressure head changes. In this study, a novel micro-sprinkler system is proposed that uses microtube as the emitter and where the length of the microtube can be varied in response to pressure changes along the lateral to give uniformity of emitter discharges. The objective of this work is to develop and validate empirical and semi-theoretical equations for the emitter hydraulics. Laboratory testing of two microtube emitters of different diameter over a range of pressures and discharges was used in the development of the equations relating pressure and discharge, and pressure and length for these emitters. The equations proposed will be used in the design of the micro-sprinkler system, to determine the length of microtube required to give the nominal discharge for any given pressure. The semi-theoretical approach underlined the importance of accurate measurements of the microtube diameter and the uncertainty in the estimation of the friction factor for these tubes.     

齿间角对迷宫灌水器水力特性影响的数值模拟

为了探究迷宫流道齿间角对灌水器水力性能的影响,应用CFD流场和速度场的数值分析方法,研究齿间角度分别为50°,60°,70°和80°时正齿型和斜齿型迷宫灌水器的流场和速度场随齿间角的变化规律.研究结果表明:相比于RNG k-ε模型和SST模型,标准k-ε模型的计算结果与试验结果更加接近;正齿型和斜齿型迷宫灌水器通道内主要存在2处低速回流区,即齿型的左上侧低速回流区和右下侧低速回流区;相比于正齿型迷宫灌水器,斜齿型迷宫灌水器左上侧的低速区域较多,而右下侧的低速区域较少;随着齿间角度不断增加,灌水器内的流量不断增大,斜齿型迷宫灌水器内的流量增加受齿间角度的影响更为明显;正齿型迷宫灌水器的流量系数较大,但流态指数较小, 齿间角度为70°的正齿型迷宫灌水器的流态指数在所有灌水器中最小,其水力性能最好.     

滴头制造偏差对灌水均匀度及毛管造价的影响

为了阐明滴头制造偏差系数、灌水均匀度、毛管直径及毛管造价的内在联系,降低滴灌系统造价、提高灌水均匀度,通过理论推导结合实证计算的方法,系统分析了不同均匀度条件下滴头制造偏差系数极限值,以及滴头制造偏差系数、毛管直径、允许均匀度等三者的关系,并推导出毛管造价计算公式.结果表明：对于长度为100 m的毛管,当Keller均匀系数（EEU）为0.80时,制造偏差系数从0.05增大到0.07和0.11时,毛管造价分别增大8.7%和37.1%;当滴头制造偏差系数为0.03,EEU由0.80增大到0.85,0.90和0.95时,毛管直径分别增大20%,23.5%和56.5%,毛管造价也相应增大20%,53.8%和207.7%;当滴头制造偏差系数为0.05,EEU由0.80增大到0.85和0.90时,毛管直径则分别增大19.3%和32.8%,毛管造价也分别增大17.1%和71.4%;对于EEU为0.95时,毛管允许最小流量大于平均流量,管径计算无解.在限定值范围内,滴头制造偏差系数和Keller均匀系数的微小增大将直接导致毛管直径和造价急剧增大;滴灌系统设计应选择制造偏差系数小的滴头及合理的灌水均匀度,以达到降低工程造价的目的.     

射流脉冲三通毛管灌水均匀性试验研究

为了提高低压滴灌系统灌水均匀性,基于附壁与切换原理发明了射流脉冲三通发生器,试验研究了不同压力工况下脉冲频率、脉冲振幅2种因素对灌水均匀系数、流量偏差率的影响,并分析了脉冲条件下毛管铺设长度和进口压力对灌水均匀性的影响.结果表明:在毛管铺设长度相同时,不同低压下射流脉冲三通灌水均匀系数的平均值比普通三通提高了0.65%,流量偏差率明显低于普通三通,平均降幅为3.62%;低压条件下产生脉冲频率高于200次/min,脉冲振幅高于2.5 m;相同压力条件下,灌水均匀系数随毛管铺设长度的增大而降低,流量偏差率随毛管铺设长度的增大而显著增大;毛管铺设长度相同时,灌水器流量随进口压力增大而增大,进口流量也会随之增大.     

涌泉根灌灌水器外壳材料对水力性能的影响

对使用ABS、纯HDPE、HDPE+20%EVA、LDPE+20%EVA以及40%HDPE+40%LDPE+10%LLDPE+10%EVA这5种不同外壳材料制造的涌泉根灌灌水器,从外壳材料的收缩率、弹性模量、拉伸应变特点等方面研究了外壳材料对涌泉根灌灌水器出流特性的影响.结果表明,外壳材料对涌泉根灌灌水器的水力性能影响明显:外壳材料的模塑收缩率越大,灌水器外壳与内芯流道贴合越紧密,流量就越小;灌水器外壳的刚性越强,即材料的弹性模量越大,不同压力作用下灌水器的流量相差越小;相同制造工艺下,外壳材料的自然回弹率影响灌水器的制造偏差,材料的回弹性越好,得到的灌水器流量偏差越小.因此,为了得到制造偏差小、水力性能良好的涌泉根灌灌水器,对外壳材料的选配应平衡刚性及自然回弹性.推荐使用混合材料40%HDPE+40%LDPE+10%LLDPE+10%EVA用以制备涌泉根灌灌水器外壳.     

Critical points: interactions between on-farm irrigation systems and water distribution network

In this work, a new model useful to analyze interactions between the on-farm irrigation system supplied by critical points and the water supply network management was developed. The model evaluates the impacts of changes in the pressure head and demand simultaneity (number of open hydrants at a given time) on the irrigation system and evaluates emitter discharge and uniformity. It also estimates the potential reductions in crop yield due to decreased emission uniformity. The methodology is applied in the Bembézar Irrigation District (Southern Spain). Results show that the additional cost required for providing maximum pressure to the critical field does not offset the increase in crop yield. Hence, an increment from 91.7 to 92.1 % in yield in the critical field would represent increases in energy consumption from 0.15 to 0.17 kWh m^?3 of water. Also, the unit energy cost could be reduced by up to 0.11 kWh m^?3 without implying significant reductions in crop yield. The importance of a good selection of emitters in the critical fields (fields that are supplied by the critical hydrants) was also evaluated.     

滴灌灌水器流道设计理论研究若干问题的综述

灌水器是滴灌系统最关键的部件之一,其结构与水力性能的优劣对滴灌系统的灌水均匀性、抗堵塞能力以及寿命影响很大。在简要论述国内外滴灌灌水器流道发展现状的基础上,从灌水器流量压力关系、流道内流体流动机理、流道堵塞与防治三个方面详细阐述了灌水器流道设计理论的研究进展,最后提出了滴灌灌水器流道的发展趋势以及国内在灌水器流道设计理论研究中急需解决的问题。     

Total energy loss assessment for trickle lateral lines equipped with integrated in-line and on-line emitters

The accurate evaluation for the pressure head distribution along a trickle (drip) irrigation lateral, which can be operated under low-pressure head, dictates to precisely determine the total energy (head) losses that incorporate the combined friction losses due to pipe and emitters and, the additional local losses, sometimes called minor losses, due to the protrusion of emitter barbs into the flow. In routine design applications, assessment of total energy losses is usually carried out by assuming the hypothesis that minor losses can be neglected, even if the previous experimental studies indicated that minor losses can become a significant percentage of total energy losses as a consequence of the high number of emitters (with reducing the emitter spacing) installed along the lateral line. In this study, first, simple mathematical expressions for computing three energy loss components—minor friction losses through the path of an integrated in-line emitter, the local pressure losses due to emitter connections, and the major friction losses along the pipe—are deduced based on the backward stepwise procedure, which are quickly implemented in a simple Excel spreadsheet, to rapidly evaluate the relative contribution of each energy loss component to the amount of total energy losses. An approximate combination formulation is finally proposed to evaluate total energy drop at the end of the lateral line. For practical purpose, two design figures were also prepared to demonstrate the variation of total friction losses (due to pipe and emitters) with emitter local losses, and the variation of pipe friction losses with emitter minor friction losses, versus different emitter spacing ranging from 0.2 to 1.5 m, and various total number of emitters, regarding two kinds of the integrated in-line emitters. Comprehensive comparison test covering two design applications for different kinds of integrated in-line and on-line emitters indicated that the present mathematical model is simple, can be easily adaptable, but sufficiently accurate in all design cases examined, in comparison with the alternative procedures available in the literature.     

硅藻土微孔陶瓷灌水器水力性能研究

灌水器是渗灌系统的重要组成部分。针对硅藻土微孔陶瓷灌水器,测试了其在干燥状态和浸泡饱水状态下的压力流量特征;将渭河天然泥沙经140目筛子筛分(d≤300μm)后,配置成3种含沙量的浑水,对灌水器进行短周期灌水试验;用0.75 g/L的浑水进行灌水方法试验和灌水器浸泡饱水后灌水试验。结果表明,硅藻土微孔陶瓷灌水器压力与流量呈对数函数关系,随着压力增大,额定流量增大;清水灌溉时,随灌水次数增加,流量小幅度下降。灌水24次时,流量下降幅度约为10%;浑水试验时,流量除受灌水次数影响外,还受泥沙量的影响:相同灌水次数,含沙量增大时,流量下降幅度较大;浸泡处理减小了灌水器初始流量,减缓流量下降幅度。微观形貌进一步显示微孔陶瓷孔径在10~80μm范围内,因此含沙水灌溉严重影响灌水器使用效果。     

Effect of filter, emitter and location on clogging when using effluents

The effect on emitter clogging of four filtration systems (sand, screen, disc and a combination of screen and disc filters) and six emitter types placed in laterals 87 m long, using two different effluents with low suspended solid levels from a wastewater treatment plant, was studied for 1000 h. Four of the emitters were molded and welded into dripline wall, two of them being pressure-compensated and the other two non-pressure-compensated. The other two emitters, both pressure-compensated, were inserted into thick wall. Emitter clogging was affected mainly by emitter type, location along the lateral and the interaction between these two factors. Differences among emitters with larger clogging were only observed at the end of dripline. Two molded and welded emitters showed the worst performance: one non-pressure-compensated with the lowest passage section, and the other pressure-compensated that, after 800 h working at higher dripline flow and particle load, experienced an important decrease in flow rate. Only with the effluent that had a higher number of particles, did the filter and the interaction of filter and emitter location have a significant effect. Emitters placed after screen and sand filters showed the largest flow rates at the lateral ending, even though only sand filtration significantly reduced turbidity and suspended solids. Emitters protected by a disc filter experienced the largest flow rate reductions.     

玉米干储一体仓气流场仿真分析与优化

为提高玉米干储一体仓中气流场均匀性,采用计算流体力学和正交试验相结合的方法对玉米干储一体仓内部气流场分布进行数值仿真和参数优化。通过单因素试验,研究水平进风管位置、竖向通风笼直径、单位通风量3个因素对玉米干储一体仓通风均匀性的影响规律,并通过系列数值仿真及正交试验对干储一体仓通风结构及参数进行优化设计。结果表明：干储一体仓内气流的平均速度,受不同水平进风管位置的影响不明显,随着竖向通风笼直径的增加呈逐渐降低趋势,而随着单位通风量的增加持续增长。速度不均匀系数随水平进风管位置从上到下变动、竖向通风笼直径增加和单位通风量增加分别呈现先减小后增大、先急剧后缓慢降低和整体增加的趋势。其中,竖向通风笼直径对干储一体仓内部流场均匀性的影响最为显著,其次是水平进风管位置和单位通风量。优化后的干储一体仓通风结构及参数的组合为水平进风管位置-0.34m、竖向通风笼直径400mm、单位通风量20m3/(h·t),此方案下干储一体仓内部流场速度不均匀系数综合加权评分值与初始方案相比提高了77.4%,表明了优化方案的可行性。