Tree Adoption in the North-East Philippines Uplands: Analysis of a GO-NGO Partnership

In recent decades, the Philippines have put much effort into designing strategies for motivating upland communities to plant trees. The accomplishments of these programs have been variable, however, and need further investigation. Focusing on five villages located in the uplands in north-east Luzon, this paper assesses the response to a government program that supplied tenure security to upland farmers in exchange for tree planting, implemented through an NGO project that supported farmers with advice, logistics and free seedlings. Response was measured as the percentage of households that joined the program, the percentage of their lots that they submitted for tenure contract and the percentage of these lots that were actually planted with more than 50 trees. The resulting overall tree adoption rate was that 22% of the lots in the villages had been planted, with a variation of 15–35% between villages. Main motivational factors were the land tenure prospect and the perceived stable markets for fruit and timber. Farmers were not only motivated but also capacitated, both financially and in terms of the bureaucratic procedures, by the NGO project. Without these, the government program could only have benefited the few well-off and educated farmers. The case study stands, therefore, as an example of effective government-NGO partnership.     

Determinants of private forest management decisions: A study on West Virginia NIPF landowners

The availability of timber in the United States depends largely on forest management and investment decisions of nonindustrial private forest landowners since they hold the largest share of forest land in the nation. Since NIPF landowners are so diverse, there is a need to better understand the determinants of their decisions so that policies could be in place to motivate them. A survey was carried out in 2005 to the nonindustrial private forest landowners of West Virginia to examine the factors affecting their forest management decisions. The study looked at four categories of decisions related to forest management: timber harvest, silvicultural activities (i.e., tree planting, herbicide application, fertilization, thinning, grapevine control, and timber stand improvement), property management activities (i.e., road construction, road maintenance, surveying/boundary maintenance, and access control), and wildlife habitat management and recreation improvement activities. Four models were developed to examine factors affecting each category of forest management activity. The results showed that landowner, ownership, and management characteristics of NIPF landowners are associated with their forest management decisions. Specifically, age, education, profession, income, ownership size, period of forestland acquisition, distance of the forestland to the place of residence, whether the forestland was purchased or acquired through inheritance or as a gift, primary objective of forestland ownership, and presence of a written forest management plan were found to be significant determinants for at least one of the categories of forest management activities. The models explained 25%, 27%, 31%, and 24% of the variation in timber harvesting, silvicultural activities, property management activities, and wildlife habitat management and recreation improvement activities, respectively. Understanding the underlying factors influencing forest management decisions of this diverse group of forest landowners could form the basis for developing, modifying and targeting policy instruments to motivate NIPF landowners in forest management.     

Contribution of participatory forest management towards conservation and rehabilitation of dry Afromontane forests and its implications for carbon management in the tropical Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia

Participatory forest management (PFM) has been applied as an approach to create a framework for collaborative forest management between local communities and government forestry agencies. This study was designed to assess the contribution of PFM approach in improving forest status in the Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia. Landsat satellite imageries of four years were used to evaluate the trends and rate of deforestation before and after PFM interventions. Socio-economic data were collected from sample household surveys, key participants, focus group discussions, and field observations. The results showed that there was high rate of deforestation before PFM intervention as forestland has decreased by 19% (2531 ha) between 1990 and 2000. However, after the PFM intervention (2000–2016), the forest cover has increased by 247 ha (2.2%). During this period, net 1016 ha of shrub-lands were converted into forestland owing to significant forest regeneration. In addition, most sampled households (94% and 96% from lower and upper altitudes, respectively) perceived that PFM had significantly contributed to improve forest regeneration in their locality. This study revealed that PFM can serve as a stepping stone for carbon financing mechanisms to reduce greenhouses emission and enhance carbon sinks via forest resources.     

Assessing the potential for urban trees to facilitate forest tree migration in the eastern United States

Latitudinal shifts in tree species distributions are a potential impact of climate change on forest ecosystems. It has been hypothesized that some tree species may become extirpated as climate change effects may exceed their migration ability. The goal of this study was to compare tree species compositions in northern urban areas to tree compositions in forestland areas in the eastern U.S. as an indicator of the potential for urban trees to facilitate future forest tree species migration. Results indicated that a number of tree species native to eastern U.S. forests of southern latitudes are currently present in northern urban forests. The biomass density (Mg/ha) of urban tree species is typically less than half of forestland densities with the majority of urban tree species found in nearby (<100 km) forestland. Urban tree propagation is often facilitated by humans, whereas the necessary pollinators and agents of tree seed dispersal in forestlands may be lacking regardless of climate change. It is suggested that urban areas may serve divergent, dual roles as both a native tree seed source and refuge for a limited number of forestland tree species, but also a facilitator of non-native tree invasion.     

三北防护林体系工程发展现状及对策

为了改善生态环境,中国政府于１９７８年开始在三北地区建设林体系。１５年来,共计完成人工造林１３３０ｈｍ＾２,零星植树３０亿株,森林被覆盖率已由１５年前的５．００５％提高到８．６％,不仅取得了明显的生态效益和经济效益,也走出一条有中国特色的林建设道路。今后的发展对策为：强化政府行为;调整经济政策;优化林种树种结构;增加科技含量。     

Forest Allocation Policy and Level of Forest Dependency of Economic Household Groups: A Case Study in Northern Central Vietnam

A new forest policy of allocating forestland to individual households for management and development, has been applied in Vietnam since the early 1990s. This study was designed to examine how local forest-related people have used forestland and forest resources under the new policy, and to determine their level of dependency on forests. An upland forest-related community in northern central Vietnam, where the policy was introduced in 2002, was chosen as a case study. It was found that local residents in the community have not complied with the forest allocation policy well, in that they violated the policy to freely lend forestland to and borrow from villagers for cropping purposes, regardless of whether they were rich or poor, had enough land or not, or were legally forest recipients. Regarding forest dependency, all households studied lived on forest resources (forestland and forest products). More than 65% of the total annual income of poorer households was derived from the forest, compared to less than 40% for the richer households. Forest-derived income accounted for more than 75% in their total income in some of the poorest households.

论山区综合开发

我国山区地域广阔，人口众多，资源丰富，蕴藏着巨大的开发潜力，为了完成第二步战略目标，使山区脱贫奔小康，国家很重视山区综合开发，山区综合开发的内容和方针是“改土、治水、植树、修路、通电”；山区综合开发的核心是林业，突破口是经济林，山区开发项目，全部要按照工程项目组织实施和检查验收。在实施上要做了国民经济总体发展规划和部门规划。     

Optimizing Tapping-Tree Density of Rubber (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hevea brasiliensis</Emphasis>) Plantations in South China

Tapping-tree density in rubber plantations affects the production of dry rubber. Farmers can estimate rubber productivity when they know with certainty the number of tapping trees within a plantation and can therefore increase productivity through optimized planting schematics. Historical data on planting distance between trees and between rows, planting density (trees/ha) and tapping-tree density (number of trees under tapping for latex harvest per hectare) from 1952 to 2014 have been collected for plantations in the Hainan, Yunnan and Guangdong provinces of South China. A plantation survey was conducted to collect more detailed data on current tapping tree and planting densities in various plantations in the three provinces. Planting density and row spacing are found to have increased with rubber tree planting time and plant spacing to have declined from 1952 to 2014. Tapping-tree density of rubber plantations from 1955 to 1995 in South China ranges from 270 to 345 tree/ha, averaging 300 trees/ha. Strong typhoons and cold snaps are important drivers of fluctuations in tapping-tree density. The factors driving tapping-tree density are similar across the three provinces but the degree of change differs between provinces. Tapping panel dryness (due to tapping beyond the natural limit of the rubber tree productivity), severe wind damage and cold damage are the major factors resulting in loss of tapping trees in plantations in South China. These results suggest that a combination of environmental management for extreme weather and targeted breeding could improve tapping-tree density in rubber plantation and therefore dry rubber yield per unit area.     

湿地松人工林造林整地与抚育方式效应分析与评价

4年生湿地松人工林造林整地与抚育试验观测结果表明：整地规格对湿地松幼林成活率没有显著影响，而抚育方式对湿地松幼林成活率有极显著影响，以穴状和带状抚育幼林成活率最高，为92.15%，而对照仅为82.17%。整地规格、抚育方式及二因子的交互作用对湿地松胸径、树高生长量没有显著影响，通过对整地、抚育方式湿地松生长量分析，结合经济评价，丘岗地湿地松造林以中穴整地、穴状和带状抚育为宜。幼林抚育能明显提高林地肥力，并且抚育强度越大，林地肥力恢复与提高越快；抚育能减少林地被种类、多度及盖度。     

黑龙江省西部半干旱地区农林复合系统景观生态分析

运用景观生态学的研究方法和观点对我省西部农林复合经营的典型之一———甘南县音河镇 3个具有不同特点的村的农林复合系统进行景观类型的多样性、均匀性、优势度、相对丰富度及类斑丰度的比较分析。结果表明 :地块平整规范的兴全村景观多样性指数、均匀性指数最低 ,优势度较高 ,地块复杂的山湾村则与之相反 ,景观类型多样性和均匀性指数最高 ,优势度指数最低 ,相对丰富度指数最高 ,兴建村介于 2村之间 ;而从树种景观类型上分析兴全村较山湾和兴建 2村丰富 ,特别是常绿树种类型则较其他 2村丰富 ,表明在景观宜人性、美学价值方面兴全村比其他 2村优越     

Introduction of Raikhanim (Ficus semicordata) in a Maize and Finger-Millet Cropping System: An Agroforestry Intervention in Mid-Hill Environment of Nepal

Fodder trees are integral part of farming system in the hills of Nepal, but designed agroforestry interventions targeted to particular trees and crops are not widely available. This paper examines the joint productivity of an agroforestry practice in which Raikhanim (Ficus semicordata) is planted in a maize (Zea mays) and finger-millet (Eleusine coracana) cropping system at Keware Bhanjyang of the western mid-hills of Nepal. Raikhanim seedlings were planted in a row on terrace risers 2, 4 and 6 m apart in ordinary farming conditions, in a randomized block design with three replications. Maize and finger-millet were grown on the terraces as intercrops with a control plot without trees on risers in each replicate. Growth parameters of Raikhanim—height, diameter at 30 cm above ground (D₃₀) and survival rate—were recorded annually in December until trees were lopped for fodder biomass, and crop yields were measured to determine tree-crop interaction effects. Tree height and D₃₀ differed significantly between spacings until trees reached the lopping stage 3½ years after planting, with the highest growth in 4 m spacing. Tree lopping checked the height growth but the diameter growth continued to increase and differed among spacings after lopping. Fodder biomass increased with tree age and was highest under 4 m spacing (7.294 t/ha) followed by 6 m (5.256 t/ha) and 2 m (3.84 t/ha). Finger-millet yield in the experimental plots decreased with tree age due to shading effects, while maize yield was not substantially affected. Among spacings, control plots produced the highest finger-millet yield (1,624 kg/ha) while the 6 m spacing produced the highest maize yield (2,463 kg/ha). It is concluded that planting Raikhanim at 6 m intervals will produce additional fodder without significant effect on maize yield and only a moderate effect on finger-millet yield. The agroforestry practice of planting fodder trees on under-utilised terrace risers is a viable option for mid-hill farmers for simultaneous production of fodder and cereal crops while sustaining the hill farming system.     

Increasing rubber planting density to shade Imperata: a bioeconomic modelling approach

The profitability to smallholders of rubber production in Imperata infested areas of Indonesia was assessed using an existing bioeconomic model. An Imperata groundcover component was incorporated within the model as follows: tree girth = f(Imperata groundcover) = f(relative shading) = f(crown height, canopy width, tree spacing) = f(tree girth). The first two relationships represent extensions to the original model.Cumulative tree girth was predicted for rubber planting densities from 400 to 1000 stems/ha. At low tree planting rates, competition from Imperata restricts tree growth. At high tree planting rates, Imperata is controlled, but there are negative consequences from inter-tree competition. These two effects of higher planting rates counterbalanced, such that tree girth was approximately constant across the range of tree densities.Tree girth is a driving force in determining latex yield. Latex yield was translated into present value net economic returns within the model, by reference to prices and costs associated with rubber production in South Sumatra, Indonesia in 1995. Economic returns from planting 400 to 1000 trees/ha were calculated. Rubber growing by smallholders on Imperata infested land, was found to be profitable. Maximum profitability was obtained at 600 trees/ha. However, the sensitivity of net economic returns, with respect to tree density, was not great. This was due to the counterbalancing effects of changes in tree density.     

Effects of planting design on planted seedlings and spontaneous vegetation 16 years after establishment of forest edges

In afforestation, studies of forest edges seldom span the effects of planting design and the self-designing capacities of spontaneous vegetation. This study revisited experimental forest edge sections 16 years after their establishment to assess the impact of five design elements on (1) horizontal and vertical edge structure, (2) growth of planted species and species groups, and (3) spontaneous establishment of woody vegetation. The design elements were: exposure to direct solar radiation; edge typology (shrub mixture, mixture of trees and shrubs, no edge planting); width of edge planting (5 or 10 m); species mixture principle (intimate mixtures or single species grouping); and planting row position from outermost to interior planting row (max. 6 rows). The results demonstrate that edge plantings support significantly more spontaneous woody vegetation than stand boundaries without such edge plantings. This result was consistent across the different design elements. Position across the planting rows from the outermost to innermost row was the most influential design element for the development of planted seedlings. Planted tree and shrub species of similar shade tolerance had contradicting development, where light-demanding pioneer tree species had obtained dominant positions while shade-tolerant shrub species had outgrown more light-demanding species. These results demonstrate that important successional processes can be activated by establishing the initial components and structures of forest edges. When designing such edges, species should preferably be allocated to different row cohorts reflecting their growth form and shade tolerance.     

Economic analysis of closing degraded Boswellia papyrifera dry forest from human interventions — A study from Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, environmental degradation leads to a reduction of forest areas with economically important tree species like Boswellia papyrifera. In an attempt to reverse this development and assist natural rehabilitation, closing degraded forest from free grazing, fuel wood collection and other interference is practiced in Tigray. Sustainability of this management will, among other things, depend on the resources' tangible benefits. This study aimed to determine and compare net benefits (in Ethiopian Birr (ETB) per ha) from the closed and open Boswellia papyrifera forestlands. Production and household surveys were carried out in Jijike and Siye tabias of Abergelle woreda in northern Ethiopia. Data on costs and benefits of frankincense production were collected from firms trading the product. Net benefits from forestlands and croplands were determined using the Net Present Value criterion. The estimated mean frankincense productions were 127 kg/ha/yr for closed forestland and 84.54 kg/ha/yr for open forestland. A significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed between per tree mean frankincense yield of closed and open sites. The average grass harvest from closed area was 2851 kg/ha/yr. The financial Net Present Values were 8622 ETB/ha for closed and 6468 ETB/ha for open forestlands. These values were by 4574 ETB and 2005 ETB higher than the sum of NPV from crop and crop residuals of a hectare of cropland in the study area of the two sites, respectively. Exporting frankincense could generate foreign exchange of 53.28 and 39.05 USD/ha/yr from closed and open sites, respectively. Rural households earn about 74% of the annual total revenue (ETB/ha) from closed and open area as wage for tapping and collecting frankincense and using of grass. Sensitivity analysis showed that managing degraded Boswellia papyrifera forestland as closed area always generates a higher NPV than the open one in case of changes in discount rate and prices of inputs and outputs. Thus, managing the forest through closed areas is a competitive land-use alternative and provides higher net benefits than both open forestland and agricultural croplands.     

The role of trees for sustainable management of less-favored lands: the case of eucalyptus in Ethiopia

In northern Ethiopia, eucalyptus is the most commonly observed tree species in community and household woodlots. In an environment suffering from biomass and water shortages, erosion and land degradation, fast growing and resilient eucalyptus perform better than most indigenous tree species. Smallholders show a clear preference for eucalyptus poles, which are useful for farm implements and constructing dwellings and fences. In addition, the sale of eucalyptus poles and products has the potential to raise farm incomes, reduce poverty, increase food security and diversify smallholder-farming systems in less-favored areas of Tigray. Despite the potential for eucalyptus to improve rural livelihoods, in 1997 the regional government of Tigray imposed a ban on eucalyptus tree planting on farmlands. The ban was precipitated by concerns about the potential negative environmental externalities associated with eucalyptus, and the desire to reserve farmland for crop production. However, the regional government promotes the planting of eucalyptus in community woodlots, and has recently begun to allow private planting of eucalyptus on community wasteland and steep hillsides. In this paper, we review the ecological debate surrounding the planting of eucalyptus trees. In addition, the economic factors that influence smallholders to invest in tree production are considered. Ex ante benefit–cost analysis based on community and village level survey data from Tigray illustrates that planting eucalyptus yields high rates of return, well above 20% in most circumstances. The effect of variable harvest rates, and the potential costs of decreased crop production when eucalyptus trees are planted on or near farmlands are considered relative to our base case scenario. Based upon the review of the ecological and economic impacts of eucalyptus, we conclude that a policy option favoring the allocation of wastelands for private tree planting offers the greatest opportunity for rural smallholders.     

宁夏盐池沙区生态经济型防护林体系林种树种优化比例研究

运用层次分析方法对盐池沙区林业建设的现状进行了分析,建立了盐池县生态经济型防护林体系的优化模型,提出了盐池县风沙区生态经济型防护林体系林种、树种的最优比例。林地面积由原来的6．894万hm^2增加到10．905万hm^2,固沙林、饲料林、草原防护林、农田防护林、经济林、薪炭林、特用林分别占25．68％、20．39％、14．09％、12．09％、10．59％、8．78％、8．39％。     

Transferring site information for black walnut from native woodlands in southeastern Kansas USA to identify sites for agroforestry practices

Black walnut (Juglans nigra) is an important tree species for temperate agroforestry in the United States for timber, nuts, wildlife, and abrasives. Predictions of forestland productivity are needed for proper species selection in tree planting. Potential productivity can be estimated for non-forested areas and agricultural croplands by relating site quality to site and soil characteristics. Our study measured the growth potential of black walnut in natural stands. We looked at over 210 stands on unglaciated soils in southeastern Kansas with the site index at 50 years ranging from 9.1 to 26.8 m. Numerous environmental factors were evaluated, including: site, soil chemical, and soil physical properties. These environmental factors were related to tree height at the standard age of 50 years. Simple correlation and multiple regression analyses were run with the site index using over 60 variables of soil and topographic characteristics. Understory competition had no effect on site index. Chemical characteristics had a slight effect on site index. We explained 73 % of the variation in site index with just two variables; depth to a restrictive layer (DRL) and soil type. DRL is a good predictor of walnut productivity.     

Rural livelihood benefits from participation in the taungya agroforestry system in Ondo State of Nigeria

This study examines the strategies and benefits of the taungya farming system to both the government and the rural economy in Nigeria. An interview survey was conducted in which data were collected from 115 randomly selected farmers in five villages in the Oluwa forest reserve, Ondo State, Nigeria. The study examines the extent of participation of rural dwellers in plantation development through taungya farming and the degree of success of this system as an afforestation method. The farmers were predominantly illiterate, within the age bracket of 35–54 years and with small farm holdings. Twenty nine percent relied totally on food from the forest reserve for their livelihood, while 71% also had farm holdings in free areas. Land within the reserve is allocated to farmers free of charge but compensation is paid to landlords on land from free areas. A statistically significant difference was detected in income from the two sources of farmland for the households and but not in the size of land allocated under taungya and free areas. About 184 farmers are involved in taungya annually, and 410 ha of Tectonia grandis has been established for the government of Ondo State.     

Bird and Plant Diversity in Tropical Landscape Mosaics in East Usambaras, Tanzania

The role of land uses outside protected areas in conserving tropical biodiversity remains poorly understood and contested. This paper summarizes the results of plant and bird surveys conducted in three rural landscapes in the East Usambara Mountains of Tanzania, covering a gradient from Village forest reserves to tree-based and other agricultural land uses. The species richness and occurrence of conservationally important species across the land uses were analyzed. Twelve plots of 0.2 ha, stratified among land use types, were established to survey the large trees, with sub-plots of 1 × 40 m for tree saplings, shrubs and non-woody plants, and 5 × 40 m plots for small trees. Avian richness was measured in the same sites as the plants through mist netting and timed species counts. The village forests had higher plant species richness and more conservationally important plant species compared to other land uses. Agroforest and fallows supported a relatively high number of plant species, but the species composition was largely different to the adjacent village forests. Bird species of conservation importance were recorded across all land uses. Village forest reserves and some of the tree-based agricultural land uses were found to contribute to biodiversity conservation goals in tropical landscape mosaics. There is a need to better integrate them, and address their multiple functions, in village land-use planning and conservation efforts at the landscape level.     

Farmers’ Motivations to Plant and Manage On-Farm Trees in Ghana

Deforestation and forest degradation, especially in the agricultural landscapes, are serious threats to biodiversity conservation and sustainability of the timber industry. Planting trees on farms has been identified as having great potential to increase forest resources from agricultural landscapes. This paper examined farmers’ motivations and behaviour to engage in on-farm tree planting and management in Ghana by combining internal and external factors in a socio-psychological model. Data were collected from 156 smallholder farmers from five communities in two forest districts using a semi-structured questionnaire. Additional farm inventory data were collected from 33 farmers under two on-farm tree planting schemes. On-farm tree planting was perceived as providing income, access to personal timber for furniture, and access to loan facilities. Incentives such as provision of grants, farming inputs, capacity training, and access to markets for agricultural produce are factors that motivate on-farm tree planting in Ghana. The average standing volume of on-farm trees in the study area is 51.9 m³/ha which is almost twice the national average for the off-reserve areas in the semi-deciduous forests to which much of the study sites belong. Many farmers considered high financial costs and limited knowledge of appropriate techniques in managing planted on-farm trees as barriers to the development of tree stock on farms.