An evaluation of farmers’ experiences planting native trees in rural Panama: implications for reforestation with native species in agricultural landscapes

In the Republic of Panama, reforestation with native species is of great interest, but many landholders often do not participate in tree planting projects and little information exists about landholder interest in, or experiences with, native trees. This study evaluates the experiences of farmers participating in a native species reforestation initiative in rural Panama to identify lessons learned that can guide on-going or future tree planting efforts. Based on the results of a questionnaire administered to program participants and non-participants (n = 68), we found that trees are important to farmers for multiple reasons, primary a variety of environmental and economic benefits. No relationship between the size of landholdings or land tenure status and the desire to plant trees was found. All participants in the program considered their experience to be positive, few had problems with their plantations, and most were interested in planting more native trees. The program’s frequent and ongoing technical support was an important factor for farmers. These results indicate widespread interest in, and success with, planting native species and underscore the need to systematically examine farmers’ interests and perceptions when planning, implementing, and evaluating reforestation initiatives.     

The ecology and ecosystem services of native trees: Implications for reforestation and land restoration in Mesoamerica

Tropical forests provide a variety of goods and services to humanity. Although efforts to protect and manage these forests have increased in recent decades, forest loss continues. The last decade and a half has seen considerable research on reforestation with native species in Mesoamerica, including both biophysical and social aspects. Advances in knowledge have led to increasingly sophisticated reforestation treatments as well as novel ways of deriving forest goods and services from human dominated landscapes.This Special Issue includes articles produced as the result of a conference held in Panama City, Panama in January 2010 with the goal to summarize the state of knowledge of native species reforestation and associated ecosystems services in Mesoamerica. The introduction concludes with a call for continued research, including a mechanistic understanding of tree interactions with the biophysical environment in order to advance or knowledge of ecosystem services and their interactions. Results from these and other studies aimed at socioeconomic aspects of reforestation are critical to land use planning.     

Understanding forest transition in the Philippines: main farm-level factors influencing smallholder’s capacity and intention to plant native timber trees

The ‘when, where and how’ of decisions by smallholder upland farmers to plant trees as part of their use of natural, human and capital resources needs to be understood if policy support is to result in actual recovery of tree cover as part of a ‘forest transition’ trajectory. In large parts of the Philippines the turning point may be close. Data on resource access and tree planting decisions were gathered from a household survey, with a total of 148 respondents in four rural communities in Leyte Province in Central Philippines. Data were analysed using logistic regression analysis. Household-level results reveal that the outcomes of the decision-making processes primarily depend on the availability of land and access to remaining forest resources rather than socio-cultural or economic factors. The total area of land and number of parcels managed by the household plus security of land tenure through ownership was found to have a statistically significant effect on farmers’ decision to plant native timber trees. Access to surrounding natural forest is negatively associated with farmer tree planting.     

The tree planting and protecting culture of cattle ranchers and small-scale agriculturalists in rural Panama: Opportunities for reforestation and land restoration

To examine the opportunities available for designing diverse tree planting and land restoration initiatives in agricultural landscapes that contain tropical dry forests, the tree planting and protecting practices of cattle ranchers and small-scale agriculturalists were examined in two study sites in rural Panama. Ninety-nine tree species were identified that they utilize, plant, or protect on their land, the majority of which are native to Panama. The farmers had diverse reasons for maintaining trees, including improving the environment, providing food and shade for cattle, and generating a source of wood for construction, furniture, and firewood. Most of the trees mentioned in the study provide multiple uses and values and the majority of farmers wanted to plant additional trees. Some differences in species preferences and motivations for planting and protecting trees were seen between sites, thereby suggesting that land restoration and tree planting projects should be site specific. Our data indicate that there are ample opportunities to increase native tree cover in our study sites and highlight the need to incorporate farmer input into project design, implementation, and evaluation as a necessary and continuous feature throughout projects.     

Restoration of dry tropical forests in Central America: A review of pattern and process

Much information on restoration and management exists for wet tropical forests of Central America but comparatively little work has been done in the dry forests of this region. Such information is critical for reforestation efforts that are now occurring throughout Central America. This paper describes processes of degradation due to land use and provides a conceptual framework for the restoration of dry tropical forest. Most of this forest type was initially harvested for timber and then cleared for cattle in the last century (1930-1970). Only 1.7% remains largely restricted to infertile soils and remote areas on the Pacific coastal side of Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Mexico. These cleared areas are again in a state of transition due to a combination of decreasing land productivity, and land speculation for tourism development. Some farms have been sold to new landowners who are interested in reforesting to increase biodiversity and forest cover. Attempts have therefore been made to reforest by protecting the land from fire and cattle, by supplementing natural regrowth with enrichment planting, or through use of tree plantations. Experimental studies have demonstrated the ability of these lands to grow back to forests because of native species ability to sprout after cutting, and the capacity of remnant trees in field and riparian zones to provide seeds and to moderate edge environment for seed germination and seedling establishment. However, research also shows that on sites with long histories of land clearance, species diversity will remain low with functional groups missing unless some active management occurs. Under-planting with late-successional native tree species can add structure and diversity; enrichment planting with large-fruited shade-intolerant species can initiate new islands of more diverse regeneration beneath their canopies; and plantings of fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing trees that provide light canopy shade can moderate the environment below, promoting regeneration establishment of late-successional species. Plantations are the only option for lands that have lost almost all remnants of native forest, and where soils and vegetation have changed to new states of structure and function. Conversion of pastures to tree plantations that can facilitate natural regeneration beneath them is appropriate when pastures are prone to fire and/or lack immediate seed sources nearby. After the grasses have been shaded out, natural recruitment can slowly occur over a 10-15 years period. Under-planting of shade-tolerant late-successional species can supplement species composition and structure.     

Developing farmer and community capacity in Agroforestry: is the Australian Master TreeGrower program transferable to other countries?

The Australian Master TreeGrower (MTG) program was launched in 1996 as an agroforestry extension initiative of The University of Melbourne. The program included a short course for landholders that provided knowledge and practical skills but also had a strong focus on developing the information and peer networks that would provide them, and their community, with on-going support as they implement their agroforestry activities. Since 2010 the MTG has been delivered by The Australian Agroforestry Foundation, a not-for-profit organisation, and integrated with the Peer Group Mentoring (PGM) concept developed by a regional farmer group in Australia. The PGM trains, then pays, past Master TreeGrowers to support other landholders as they design and develop their own agroforestry projects. More than 100 MTG courses have been run across Australia involving over 2000 landholders and more than fifty partner organisations. Independent evaluation shows that participants enthusiastically support the program, increase the area of tree cover on their land, adopt more intensive or purposeful management practices, are more inclined to want to grow trees for a mix of both public and private good outcomes, and, actively encourage others in their community to do the same. This paper reviews the development and delivery of the MTG and PGM in Australia and explores whether the models are transferable to developing countries. To date four MTG courses have been conducted in Africa (Uganda (2) and Niger (2)), seven in Indonesia and one in Timor-Leste. Whilst the structure of the international MTG courses was different to that commonly adopted in Australia the content was similar in that they included: information to support the development and implementation of agroforestry designs that reflect their particular interests and aspirations; a review of market opportunities for agroforestry products and services, training in tree and forest measurement, education in tree growth and silviculture; and, encouragement, guidance and support to encourage landholders to share their experience with others in their community. The response suggests that the MTG, originally developed for Australian farmers, may represent a very different model of agroforestry extension to what is commonly offered to farmers in developing countries, and that it may be worth developing in regions where farmers believe they have relatively secure land tenure and are able to make long-term land management decisions regarding tree establishment and management.     

Farmers’ Fruit Tree-growing Strategies in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon and Nigeria

Many studies have stressed the importance of trees to rural households. Few, however, have focused on actual numbers and densities of trees in different land-use systems. Based on community-level participatory research in six communities, semi-structured household interviews and full-farm fruit tree inventories, this study aims to understand farmers’ tree-planting strategies. Relationships between the diversity, number and density of fruit trees and farm size, land-use system, land tenure, distance from the homestead, proximity to the forest, market access and household characteristics are investigated. The key factors determining the differences in tree-growing strategies between communities appear to be market access, land use and access to forest resources. Within communities, differences between individual households were less easy to explain but tenure was important as was farm size. Smaller farms had higher fruit tree densities, a relationship that was particularly strong in communities with good market access. Overall there was a great deal of variability both within and between communities and many of the factors affecting tree-planting decisions were found to be highly inter-related. Despite this complexity, trees on farm play an important role in rural household's livelihoods. Therefore, expansion of tree cultivation should be recognized as a promising pathway to achieve increased income and food production by policy makers and extensionists alike. In addition to improved tree propagation and management techniques, farmers should be strengthened in the processing and marketing of agroforestry tree products and more emphasis should be placed on the development of tree enterprises. By doing so, farmers will be able to earn a more important and consistent income from fruit trees, contributing to the Millennium Development Goals.     

SECTION 4:INTEGRATED ASSESSMENTS

Abstract

Reforestation of degraded lands is occurring on a limited basis in portions of the Panama Canal Watershed (PCW). In theory, markets for ecosystem services could encourage more extensive reforestation and ensure that reforestation efforts provide more than just timber. The most relevant ecosystem markets for the PCW are carbon sequestration, watershed services, and four biodiversity markets-bioprospecting, certification of biodiversity friendly products, ecotourism, and existence value. This paper examines the possibility for a land owner or land manager to participate in two or more of these markets. Two land use scenarios-native forest plantation and small-holder agroforestry-emerge as likely candidates for participation in multiple ecosystem service markets. These scenarios are examined to determine whether the strength of incentives to provide a bundle of timber and ecosystem services is sufficient to encourage expansion of these land uses with the Panama Canal Watershed.     

Farmer costs and benefits from agroforestry and farm forestry projects in Central America and the Caribbean: implications for policy

This paper presents results of an evaluation of the benefits provided by agroforestry and farm forestry projects in Central America and the Caribbean, and the policy implications. Tree planting provided financial benefits to farmers, as well as social, economic and environmental benefits. These justify policy interventions to explicitly recognize the potential of on-farm tree-planting efforts and provide a policy environment favorable to such efforts. New or revised policies are needed, particularly in a period of declining public budgets, to limit external incentives to in-kind inputs, rather than financial subsidies; promote market development for tree products; adopt low-cost, community-based extension strategies; focus research support; and reduce regulatory disincentives.     

Land tenure and farm management efficiency: The case of smallholder rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra

This study assesses the impact of land tenure institutions on the efficiency of farm management based on a case study of rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra, Indonesia. Using the modes of land acquisition as measures of land tenure institutions, we estimated tree planting, revenue, income, and short-run profit functions, and internal rates of return to tree planting on smallholder rubber fields. We find generally insignificant differences in the incidence of tree planting and management efficiency (defined as residual profits) of rubber production between newly emerging private ownership and customary ownership. This is consistent with our hypothesis that tree planting confers stronger individual rights, if land rights are initially weak (as in the case of family land under customary land tenure systems). On the other hand, short-term profits are higher on land that is rented through share tenancy. This result indicates that rubber trees are over-exploited under renting arrangements due partly to the short-run nature of the land tenancy contracts and partly to the difficulty landowners face in supervising tapping activities of tenants in spatially dispersed rubber fields. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Farm and Village Forest Use Practice in Ekiti State: Analysis of Government Policy and Tenure Issues

This study analyzed the influence of government policy and tenure issues on farm and village forest use practices in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Three rural communities that were still far from urban influence were selected from each of the 16 local government areas of the state. In each community, 20 household heads were selected and interviewed with the aid of a semi-structured matrix. The interviews aimed at the determination of respondents' socioeconomic status, awareness and belief in the effectiveness or otherwise of the forest laws and regulations, land use, tenure and property rights. Results obtained revealed that the awareness of forest laws and regulations cut across the socio-economic categories. Most of these laws and regulations that were considered to be necessary could also constitute disincentives to sustainable forest development. Three types of land tenure niches—private holdings, commons, and government reserves—exist in the state. These led to land fragmentations in which individuals are now left with small holdings. Individuals with small and medium landholdings found it difficult to invest in tree planting; hence, they meet their subsistence use of wood and non-wood forest products from diverse sources. Individuals with large landholdings were found cultivating cash tree crops; timber species were not cultivated though their wildlings were preserved. Also, when land is let or leased out, tenants were not allowed to invest in tree planting on such land.     

Drivers of adoption of eucalypt tree farming by smallholders in Thailand

Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) tree farming is a source of income for many smallholders in developing and emerging countries and critical to the resource supply of many pulp and paper companies. These companies rely on smallholders adopting tree farming, sometimes by offering a contract. This paper reports a study from four regions of Thailand, where smallholder eucalypt tree farming is important, which investigated what characteristics of smallholders were associated with greater adoption of tree farming. A total of 461 eucalypt tree farmers and 171 non-tree farmers were randomly selected and surveyed in these regions, using a door-to-door household survey. A logit analysis corroborated hypotheses about the drivers of adoption. Qualitative analyses were used to inform interpretation of the quantitative results and shed light on the role of eucalypt tree farming in smallholders’ livelihood. Results demonstrate that those with suitable land available are more likely to adopt eucalypt tree farming than others. In addition, perception of land tenure security matters in the adoption of tree growing, but holding a formal land tenure document does not. Adoption of eucalypt tree farming in Thailand is not part of a land use intensification strategy. Instead, eucalypts are used as an alternative crop for low productivity land, on which eucalypts are the most profitable crop. Eucalypt tree farming also gives smallholders an opportunity to diversify their income. In addition, this alternative land use has the advantage of requiring low labour inputs between planting and harvest. This is particularly advantageous for many tree growers who have off-farm income or rely on hired labour for farming their land.     

Tree plantations on farms: Evaluating growth and potential for success

Interest in native species is growing across the tropics as reforestation of degraded lands becomes more widespread. In this study four tree species native to Panama - Cedrela odorata, Pachira quinata, Samanea saman, and Tabebuia rosea - were grown on rural farms at two dry tropical sites in Panama for up to five years. Survivorship and growth data at these “on-farm” trials are compared to data recorded from nearby experimental or “species selection” trial sites and evaluated in terms of soil fertility and management. Participant farmers were also asked about their interest in planting trees in general as well as their interest in 61 species grown in the species selection trial.Although, on-farm survivorship was variable and generally lower than that found on the species selection trial, one species (S. saman) experienced high and consistent survivorship. High survivorship combined with growth data from farms at both sites for this species suggests it would be a good candidate for extension projects working with rural farmers. Survivorship of other species appears more sensitive to farmer management and/or local site conditions. Generally lower growth on the Los Santos farms as compared to the species-selection trial is attributed to the lower soil fertility (plant available P) at the on-farm sites compared to the species selection trial. In contrast, only one species - P. quinata - had a growth variable found to be significantly lower between the on-farm and species selection trial sites in Rio Hato. C. odorata, P. quinata T. rosea can all be used in on-farm conditions with consideration to specific site and management conditions.By 2009, approximately 80% of the farmers planting trees still wished to participate in tree planting activities. All of the farmers no longer wishing to continue with the project expressed slow growth rates of trees as a principal reason. All but one of these farmers had growth rates for his/her trees markedly below those of the species selection trial nearby. Some farmers wishing to continue had very high mortality rates (>70% for all species), suggesting non-tangible benefits for participating in project activities. Other species that were not tested on-farm but grew well in the species-selection trials and were of interest to local farmers are discussed.As long as specific site and management conditions are carefully considered, data from species selection trials can be useful in informing tree planting projects with rural farmers; however, care should be taken to manage expectations.     

Farm Forestry Prospects Among Some Local Communities in Rachuonyo District,Kenya

Deforestation and degradation of productive lands are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry/agricultural practices in Kenya. In the last two decades farm forestry (FF) has been promoted through pilot projects among local communities as an example of sustainable land use. However adoption of FF is limited outside the project locations because FF improvement measures focused mainly on biological (e.g. succession, biodiversity and traditional industrial timber production) and technical concerns (e.g. material input delivery such as providing free tree seedlings for field planting) rather than local values, and interests and the constraints facing farmers. This study examined the local farm priorities and constraints and the prospects for the wider implementation of farm-level tree planting in four communities in Rachuonyo District. Using interviews with 597 randomly selected household heads, the study assessed farmer’s production assets and activities, land tenure, priority tree species and the constraints to growing trees on farms. Results show that farm labour is represented by a young population, 56.3% under the age of forty. They are mainly engaged in small-scale mixed cropping integrated with multipurpose trees and some livestock. Tree products contribute about 32% to household cash income, more than any other source (agricultural products, labour sales, etc). Females were more often household heads and had considerable influence over productive activities, making them an important target group in FF development. Farmers preferred exotic tree species due to their ability to provide short-term cash income, fuel and shade. Farmers’ concerns included population pressure on limited farmlands and the problem of credit for agricultural inputs. Given the feeling of secured tenure arrangement and influence of tree products on the household economy, farmers are likely to invest more in efficient land uses such as FF if consideration is given to local priorities.     

Impact of Land Tenure Change on Land Use

China is a public ownership country. At present, theownership of land belongs to the country andcollectivity. In China, the meaning of ownership ofland is the light that the owners of land can possessthe land, use the land, get some interest from the landand deal with the land according to laws. The 4 sectionsof ownership of land can either be combined or beseparated to carry out. In practice, these 4 sections ofownership are usually separated to carry out. The tenureof land is an independent…     

The role of land tenure in conservation of tree and shrub species diversity in miombo woodlands of southern Malawi

Biodiversity is declining throughout southern African miombo woodlands due to poor land use practices that are detrimental to soil, vegetation and habitat. We aimed at examining tree and shrub species diversity and distribution in Uapaca kirkiana-dominated woodlands under three land tenure types; forest reserves, customary and leasehold land. The study was conducted at different forest sites within similar agroecological zone in southern Malawi. Study sites were located at a range of altitudes between 900 and 1,200 m a.s.l. Three circular plots each with 32.60 m radius were established at each study site to sample tree and shrub species composition, structure and distribution under three land tenure types. We found that forest reserves had higher species diversity with an average of 16 tree families, 27 genera and 34 species as compared to only 10 tree families, 6 genera and 6 species on customary forest lands. Comparisons of diameter at breast height size class distributions showed that customary land had significantly low numbers of small (5.0–10.0 cm) and very large (≥30 cm) diameter classes suggesting lower levels of regeneration and high rate of anthropogenic activities. The high species diversity and richness in forest reserves and leasehold land indicate high potential for protected lands to restore tree species diversity. It is concluded that levels of human activities as influenced by land tenure type reduce tree species diversity, composition and distribution at the different sites, and this confirms the hypothesis that open access lands are not compatible with conservation of tree and shrub species diversity because of high anthropogenic activities.     

Agroforestry adoption in Haiti: the importance of household and farm characteristics

Most agroforestry-adoption studies are based on surveys of "non-adopters." An understanding of the circumstances that have led to a change of attitude of the adopters will be valuable in our efforts to enhance adoption rates. This study was undertaken to provide such knowledge based on a large agroforestry extension project involving 200,000 farm families and covering 25% of all rural households in Haiti. A questionnaire-based survey of the project participants was conducted covering 1,540 households and 2,295 fields in four regions of Haiti. Information was recorded about each farm and family member through interviews with farmers and visits to their farms. The results confirmed that farmers make decisions about tree culture based on household- and field characteristics. Different farmers consider trees differently depending upon how they fit into their farm-family strategy. In general, farmers installed tree hedgerows on fields of less secure tenure, of lesser fertility, and steeper slope, while on closer, more fertile fields of greater tenure security, tree seedlings and fruit trees were more common and there was a greater density of mature trees (>10 cm DBH). More money was realized from sale of tree products on actively cropped fields in more secure tenure and having more fertile soil. Older farmers managed a greater density of trees, especially when the land was in secure tenure status. This broad-based study shows that agroforestry implementation strategies in poor countries such as Haiti should be based on a thorough knowledge of how farmers use household and field characteristics to make adoption decisions. It also suggests that agroforestry-adoption studies should account for the dynamic changes occurring during extended time periods.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

What Tree Species Work Best for Reforestation? Human Perceptions and Beliefs in Ghana’s High Forest Zone

We identified the perceptions and beliefs that underpin species selection for reforestation among smallholder farmers in the Wassa Amenfi District located in Ghana’s High Forest Zone. Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour as a conceptual framework, we collected perceived outcome beliefs, social referents, and control factors from the farmers with a pre-tested, Likert scaled, structured questionnaire. A Mann–Whitney U test was conducted to test for significance of differences between the responses from farmers already planting trees (PF) and those not planting trees (NPF). We found that NPF were significantly higher than PF in belief strength that tree species that have straight boles, grow fast, and have coppicing abilities are the ideal species for reforestation. We found no significant differences between the farmer groups in their motivation to comply with family members and target market as social referents in species selection; however, NPF were significantly higher in compliance with fellow farmers and landowners. NPF were significantly higher than PF that inadequate planting materials and length of investment are the main control factors, serving as the impediments discouraging NPF from participating in indigenous species reforestation.     

Changes of land tenure and the introduction of tree cash crops by shifting cultivators: The case of the Paluan Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia

Shifting cultivation is one of the main factors that has caused forest degradation in many tropical countries. In Sabah, Malaysia, the government has granted land titles to local farmers outside the Forest reserve, and introduced tree cash crops to reduce farmers’ dependence on shifting cultivation. Granting land titles, however, was not always an incentive for farmers to plant tree cash crops. Farmers often planted tree cash crops on land without secure legal rights. The Land Ordinance and illegal logging had introduced exclusive and (semi-)permanent rights to land into this region, and the Forest reserve also was divided among villagers. The Land Ordinance stipulates that planting trees confers permanent heritable and transferable rights of use and occupancy but not within Forest reserves. Local farmers who were anxious about their land rights believed that they could obtain those rights even within the Forest reserve, and applied for land titles. Farmers planted tree cash crops not only for future income but also to secure their land rights. At present, the policy of Forest reserve has nearly collapsed in this region and it is impossible to neglect or remove local farmers if the government utilizes Forest reserves for any purpose. Lands in the interior regions will be reclassified in the near future out of necessity.