Ecosystem services: Foundations,opportunities, and challenges for the forest products sector

The ecosystem service concept has been proposed as a meaningful framework for natural resource management. In theory it holds concomitant benefit and consequence for the forest product sector. However, numerous barriers impede practitioners from developing concrete and enduring responses to emerging ecosystem service markets, policies, and initiatives. Principle among these barriers is that the ecosystem service concept has a complex history, numerous definitions in use, and an astounding diversity in rationale and application. This article provides a conceptual review of ecosystem services and its economic foundations, distinguishes among several current definitions of the term and their relatedness to strategies in practical application, discusses diverse approaches to valuation, and explores potential for future relevance in forest product and other sectors.     

Cryopreservation as a tool for the conservation of Eucalyptus genetic variability: concepts and challenges

An essential criterion of Eucalyptus tree breeding programmes employed by the commercial forestry sector is the maintenance of potentially important species and genotypes for periods commensurate with field testing. Current methods for this purpose include conservation stands, clonal hedges and maintenance of cuttings in greenhouses and hydroponic systems. However, these methods, especially the maintenance of conservation stands and clonal hedges, require large tracts of land, which are now unavailable. The latter methods also have other disadvantages in that they are labour intensive and may be expensive to maintain. The conservation method of cryopreservation (the maintenance of plant cells, tissues and organs at subzero temperatures) may offer a cost-effective alternative with significant benefits, including the maintenance of plant material for theoretically unlimited periods. This field of science has experienced significant breakthroughs in the last two decades, especially in terms of the understanding of the physical, chemical and biological processes that occur during the freeze–thaw cycles. Consequently, several effective mechanisms of reducing the risk of ice crystal damage have been developed, resulting in the successful cryopreservation of numerous wild and domesticated plant species. Apart from germplasm conservation, cryopreservation may also be employed as a means of maintaining genetically engineered transformants while field testing is conducted. This is particularly advantageous considering the large numbers of transformants that can be generated during genetic engineering trials. Cryopreservation should, therefore, be considered a potentially important tool in commercial breeding strategies. This paper details the benefits and advantages of the technology, and also identifies and explains some of the key challenges that still exist, especially those associated with the cryopreservation of highly hydrated and/or desiccation-sensitive material such as Eucalyptus axillary buds.     

The farm forest resource in Ireland: opportunities and challenges for rural development in Ireland

A critical mass of farm forestry and private forestry is now developing in Ireland with over 211,000 ha planted since 1980, with 190,000 ha of this planted since 1990. Currently, 90,000 ha of private forests are over 10 years of age, with 41,000 ha over 15 years of age. This paper examines the potential of the farm forest resource in Ireland and highlights some issues that need to be addressed in order that the full potential of farm forestry is realised. It is estimated that 876,000 m³ of timber is currently available from forests through removals from thinning operations from plantations that are at or have passed first thinning age. Cumulative volume output from thinning could be as high as 1.9 M m³ by 2010 increasing to 5.9 M m³ by 2015. Farm forestry has the potential to be a financially important farm enterprise with 15% of farmers (16,460) currently engaged in forestry in Ireland. The development of volume production forecasts will provide crucial supply information for gearing up of the wood-processing sector for additional volume from farms. However many enterprises face high harvesting and extraction costs. Solutions to overcoming economies of scale due to the small size of plantations (averaging 9.2 ha) are proposed using methods to group forestry operations together. The network of small sawmills throughout the country is favourable for private growers as analysis indicates that 82% of private forests are within 32 km of a sawmill and efforts to stimulate local processing are being encouraged. Financial analysis indicates that farmers can increase forestry returns by thinning their plantations. The risk of windthrow to plantations is one of the major factors that can lead to financial losses in farm forestry in Ireland and can be reduced by adequate management planning. A series of forestry extension programs will provide farmers with adequate information to help aid decision-making in managing their plantations.

Compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product management in natural tropical forests: Perspectives,challenges, and opportunities

Tropical forests could satisfy multiple demands for goods and services both for present and future generations. Yet integrated approaches to natural forest management remain elusive across the tropics. In this paper we examine one combination of uses: selective harvesting of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction. We analyze the current status of this combination and speculate on prospects and challenges regarding: (i) resource inventory, (ii) ecology and silviculture, (iii) conflict in the use of multipurpose tree species, (iv) wildlife conservation and use, (v) tenure, and (vi) product certification. Our conclusions remain preliminary due to the relative paucity of published studies and lessons learned on what has worked and what has not in the context of integrated management for timber and NTFPs. We propose at least three ways where further research is merited. One, in improving ‘opportunistic’ situations driven by selective timber harvesting that also enhance NTFP values. Two, to explicitly enhance both timber and NTFP values through targeted management interventions. Three, to explicitly assess biophysical, social, regulatory and institutional aspects so that combined benefits are maximized. Interventions for enhancing the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction must be scaled in relation to the size of the area being managed, applied timber harvesting intensities, and the dynamics of multi-actor, forest partnerships (e.g., between the private sector and local communities). In addition, training and education issues may have to be re-crafted with multiple-use management approaches inserted into tropical forestry curricula.     

利用根癌农杆菌转化木本植物的研究进展

本文着重论述了近年来国内外利用根癌农杆菌介导法转化林木的研究进展。简述了获得转基因林木的应用现状,并将国内外林木转基因工作给以概括,提出了转化过程中存在的问题,并对这一转化方法的应用前景进行了展望。     

Biochemical and molecular genetic markers in biosystematic studies of forest trees

Biochemical and molecular markers have proven to be powerful tools for discerning biosystematic, biogeographic, and phylogenetic relationships. Biosystematic information can be important for guiding traditional breeding programs, gene transfer, interspecific hybridization, and gene conservation. A phylogenetic framework is usually necessary, but frequently ignored, for making valid statistical tests in studies of adaptive evolution. Several studies have indicated a strong correlation between biochemical races and traits important to growth and adaptation, suggesting that evolutionary legacy may affect genetic architecture of fitness traits — with consequences for seed transfer, breeding strategies, and tolerance of climate change. A number of methods for phylogenetic analysis exist, but differ in their assumptions. Use of an inappropriate method — such as a method that assumes constant rates of evolution when rates in fact vary — can lead to incorrect phylogenies. Because of their complexity, phylogenetic topologies are often difficult to determine unambiguously; estimates of statistical confidence should therefore accompany phylogenetic trees if they are to be regarded as providing new knowledge, or strong confirmation, of relationships. Molecular genetic markers are more expensive than biochemical markers such as allozymes and terpenes, but they provide increased accuracy and expanded scope of biosystematic inference, and facilitate statistical analyses of phylogenetic trees.Abbreviations BMGMs biochemical and molecular genetic markers - cpDNA chloroplast DNA - OTU operational taxonomic unit - rbcL chloroplast gene encoding ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase large subunit - rbcS nuclear gene encoding ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase small subunit - rDNA ribosomal DNA - RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism - UPGMA unweighted pair group method of clustering using averages This is paper 2708 of the Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State University.     

Spatial structure of genetic variation within populations of forest trees

The spatial pattern and structure of genetic variation are important aspects of the population genetics of forest stands. Combined with limits to seed and pollen dispersal, spatial structure affects the level of inbreeding and the action of natural selection. The genetic constitution of stand regeneration, following different forestry practices, is also influenced by spatial structure. For example, natural regeneration with seed trees involves sampling seed trees from a stand that may be genetically nonhomogeneous. This paper reviews theoretical and empirical results on spatial patterns of genetic variation, produced under limited gene flow and selection, in terms of recently developed spatial statistics (e.g., spatial autocorrelation). Genetic correlations in samples from spatially structured populations are also described, as well as how spatial samples can be used to characterize the structure of genetic variation, and how inferences can be made about (spatially distributed) components of fitness and yield.     

林木遗传图谱的构建策略及存在的问题

遗传图谱是开展数量性状基因定位、标记辅助育种以及基因克隆等研究的基础,在理论和育种实践上都具有重要的意义,本文较为详尽地阐述了林木遗传图谱的构建过程,针对林木的自身特点探讨林木遗传图谱的作图策略,同时指出当前林木遗传图谱构建中存在的问题,并对林木高质量遗传图谱构建提出展望。     

A review of the challenges and opportunities in estimating above ground forest biomass using tree-level models

Accurate biomass measurements and analyses are critical components in quantifying carbon stocks and sequestration rates, assessing potential impacts due to climate change, locating bio-energy processing plants, and mapping and planning fuel treatments. To this end, biomass equations will remain a key component of future carbon measurements and estimation. As researchers in biomass and carbon estimation, we review the present scenario of aboveground biomass estimation, focusing particularly on estimation using tree-level models and identify some cautionary points that we believe will improve the accuracy of biomass and carbon estimates to meet societal needs. In addition, we discuss the critical challenges in developing or calibrating tree biomass models and opportunities for improved biomass. Some of the opportunities to improve biomass estimate include integration of taper and other attributes and combining different data sources. Biomass estimation is a complex process, when possible, we should make use of already available resources such as wood density and forest inventory databases. Combining different data-sets for model development and using independent data-sets for model verification will offer opportunities to improve biomass estimation. Focus should also be made on belowground biomass estimation to accurately estimate the full forest contribution to carbon sequestration. In addition, we suggest developing comprehensive biomass estimation methods that account for differences in site and stand density and improve forest biomass modeling and validation at a range of spatial scales.     

Nuclear,chloroplast, and mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms as biochemical markers in population genetic analyses of forest trees

DNA analyses have been used only occasionally to investigate genetic polymorphisms in forest tree populations. Nonetheless, these analyses have already contributed to significant discoveries, such as paternal chloroplast and maternal mitochondrial DNA inheritance in Pinaceae. DNA polymorphisms will be increasingly exploited in the future by forest population geneticists, because available technology permits large sample sizes and yields excellent resolution. The utility of chloroplast, mitochondrial, and nuclear DNA polymorphisms is expected to be greatest when less expensive genetic markers are unavailable, insufficiently numerous, or ineffectively polymorphic. For example, DNA fingerprinting may permit the unambiguous elucidation of genetic relationships within and among populations of woody species.     

Voicing interests and concerns: challenges for forest research

Forest research has to change in response to the increased interest of society in the management of forest land. The president and the vice president of IUFRO, the Assistant Director-General for Forestry in the FAO and the Past Director-General of CIFOR discuss key issues. IUFRO should become a clearing house for forest research and expertise. Research has to recognize that the culture of forestry has become a culture of conflict. More interdisciplinary and policy research should be added to the strong bio-physical sciences in forestry. We need science to exploit the comparative advantages of local and larger-scale forest management and we need science to bridge the gaps between the traditional and modern pools of knowledge and experience.     

World view of Gmelina arborea: opportunities and challenges

Gmelina arborea Roxb. (gmelina) occurs naturally in 11 countries in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. Approximately 700,000?ha of gmelina have now been established in plantations, small woodlots and agroforestry settings in west-central and eastern Africa, southeast Asia, the South Pacific, and northern Latin America. It is expected that planting areas will expand to 800,000?ha by 2020. The species has generated interest because of its fast growth and quick return on investment. Its wood can be used for a multitude of products that range from pulp to furniture parts. Gmelina also has great utility in agroforestry systems. Intensive breeding and improved clones will bring better growth, more uniform wood, better disease resistance, and products of higher quality to both local and international markets. Several factors might limit the degree of improvement and use of gmelina: (a) the species is susceptible to insect attacks and disease which might limit plantation expansion, (b) artificial pollinations are labor intensive and sometimes difficult to complete successfully, thus delaying breeding cycles and deployment of elite populations and clones and (c) the wood density of gmelina is approximately 410?kg/m³ at 8 years of age, which is lower than most commercial species of eucalypts and acacias. Low density affects pulp yields and product strength. These challenges can be met by: (a) development of clones resistant to insect and disease attacks as a cost effective means to maintain plantation stocking and productivity, (b) development of one-stop pollination techniques to increase pollination success rates and reduce the work loads in breeding programs, and (c) utilization of the great tree to tree variation in wood properties in gmelina to develop new races of trees that have both desirable growth rates and dense wood. Access to a broad genetic base of gmelina is central to meeting these challenges.

Palabras clave: Conservación, Mejoramiento, Plantaciones, Propiedades de madera, Silvicultura

Resumen. La Gmelina arborea Roxb. (gmelina) es nativa de 11 países, en regiones tropicales y subtropicales de Asia. Hasta el momento, aproximadamente 700,000 ha de gmelina han sido establecidas en plantaciones, lotes de árboles y en sitios agroforestales en el oeste central y el este de África, el sureste de Asia, el Pacifico Sur y el norte de América Latina. Se espera que para el año 2020, las áreas de plantación se hayan extendido a 800,000?ha. Esta especie ha generado interés debido a su rápido crecimiento y pronto retorno de inversión. Su madera puede ser utilizada en una multitud de productos, los cuales van desde pulpa de madera hasta partes para muebles. Además, la gmelina es de gran utilidad en programas agroforestales. El mejoramiento genético intensivo y clones mejorados darán como resultado un mejor crecimiento, madera más uniforme, mejor resistencia a las enfermedades y productos de mayor calidad tanto para los mercados locales como los internacionales.

Existen varios factores que pueden limitar el grado de mejoramiento y el uso de la gmelina: (a) la susceptibilidad de la especie al ataque de los insectos y las enfermedades, lo cual puede limitar la expansión de las plantaciones, (b) las polinizaciones artificiales requieren de mucha mano de obra y son dificiles de completar lo cual demora ciclos de mejoramiento y la utilización de las poblaciones élite y clones, y (c) la densidad de la madera de la gmelina a los 8 años de edad, de aproximadamente 410?kg/m³, es más baja que la densidad de la mayoría de las especies comerciales de eucalipto y acacias. La baja densidad afecta los rendimientos de pulpa y la fortaleza del producto. Estos retos pueden ser superados por medio de: (a) el desarrollo de clones resistentes al ataque de insectos y enfermedades como una forma económica y efectiva de mantener la densidad de plantaciones y su productividad, (b) el desarrollo de técnicas de polinización de un solo paso para aumentar las tasas de éxito de la polinización y reducir las cargas de trabajo en los programas de mejoramiento, y (c) el uso de la gran variabilidad de las propiedades de madera de la gmelina de árbol a árbol, para poder desarrollar nuevas razas de árboles las cuales tengan buenas tasas de crecimiento, y una densidad de madera deseada. El acceso a una amplia base genética es clave para poder alcanzar estos retos.

     

Designing old forest for the future: Old trees as habitat for birds in forests of Mountain Ash Eucalyptus regnans

Old trees are one of many habitat attributes associated with old forests. They are known to be required by many wildlife species including cavity-dependent birds. Forest managers need to select strategies for retaining and regrowing old trees to maintain suitable numbers over time at appropriate configurations in the forest landscape. This paper presents data from wet forests in south-eastern Australia to help elucidate the effects of different strategies on forest birds as one element of biodiversity that needs to be conserved in these forests.     

关于森林覆盖率与林木绿化率的思考

森林覆盖率与林木绿化率都是反映一个国家或地区森林资源丰富程度及实现绿化程度的指标。二者既有联系,又有区别,反映的侧重点有所不同,提高的途径也有所不同。文章联系实际,对森林覆盖率与林木绿化率二者的联系、区别、提高的途径以及在应用过程中的困境进行了详细的分析,并提出自己的解决思路及对策。     

Silvicultural treatments enhance growth rates of future crop trees in a tropical dry forest

Silvicultural treatments are often needed in selectively logged tropical forest to enhance the growth rates of many commercial tree species and, consequently, for recovering a larger proportion of the initial volume harvested over the next cutting cycle. The available data in the literature suggest, however, that the effect of silvicultural treatments on tree growth is smaller in dry forests than in humid forest tree species. In this study, we analyze the effect of logging and application of additional silvicultural treatments (liana cutting and girdling of competing trees) on the growth rates of future crop trees (FCTs; i.e., trees of current and potentially commercial timber species with adequate form and apparent growth potential). The study was carried out in a tropical dry forest in Bolivia where a set of 21.25-ha plots were monitored for 4 years post-logging. Plots received one of four treatments that varied in intensity of both logging and silvicultural treatments as follows: normal (reduced-impact) logging; normal logging and low-intensity silviculture; increased logging intensity and high-intensity silviculture; and, unlogged controls. The silvicultural treatments applied to FCTs involved liberation from lianas and overtopping trees. Results showed that rates of FCT stem diameter growth increased with light availability, logging intensity, and intensity of silvicultural treatments, and decrease with liana infestation degree. Growth rate increment was larger in the light and intensive silvicultural treatment (22–27%). Long-lived pioneer species showed the strongest response to intensive silviculture (50% increase) followed by total shade-tolerant species (24%) and partial shade-tolerant species (10%). While reduced-impact logging is often not sufficient to guarantee the sustainability of timber yields, application of silvicultural treatments that substantially enhanced the growth rates of FCTs will help move the management of these forests closer to the goal of sustained yield.     

杉木纯林改混交林阔叶树种的选择

为了可持续利用选出多种杉木纯林改造的阔叶树种的人工复层林的经营模式 ,在杉木纯林间伐后采用多种更新改造阔叶树的随机设计试验。调查分析表明 ,树种间的造林效果达到显著、极显著的差异 ,米老排为效果最佳树种 ,其次为光皮桦、火力楠、细柄阿丁枫 ,初步认为桤木不适宜作为改造树种     

东南沿海古树名木消亡规律与保护管理对策——以浙江省宁海县为例

通过对东南沿海古树名木保护管理的必要性及优劣势分析，以浙江省宁海县古树名木为例，对它们的消亡规律、保护管理的经验、存在的问题展开调查、分析、研究；并在此基础上，进行科学归纳，结合东南沿海的社会、地理、气候特点，制定出适合该地区的、切实可行的古树名木复壮技术措施和保护管理对策。