Diseases and pests of pigeonpea in eastern Africa: A review

Pigeonpea is one of the major legume crops grown in eastern Africa but has been relatively neglected in terms of research and development. The peas are a rich source of protein and the crop is nitrogen-fixing and drought tolerant. It is an ideal crop for the semi-arid areas of Africa and there is great potential for it to be more widely grown. The large number of pests and diseases which attack pigeonpea in Africa (and elsewhere) is perhaps the main constraint to increased production. The most important pest worldwide is the pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera, but the flowers and pods are attractive to a wide range of insect pests. The most important disease in eastern Africa is Fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum) and considerable effort has been devoted by ICRISAT to developing wilt-resistant pigeonpeas, adapted to cultivation in the region. This paper reviews the literature on pests and diseases of pigeonpea with special reference to eastern Africa and presents some new information on distribution and damage levels for the key pests and diseases.     

1991—2010 年中国主要粮食作物生物灾害发生特征分析

生物灾害发生种类繁多和暴发频繁,是威胁我国粮食安全生产的重要因素。利用中国植物保护统计数据、粮食作物产量数据和农田土地覆盖类型分布遥感数据,重点分析中国1991年到2010年20年期间四类重要粮食作物病虫害发生面积和发生强度的变化趋势,以及其空间分布范围。结果表明：从1991年到2010年水稻、玉米和大豆病虫害发生面积均显著增加;水稻、小麦、玉米和大豆病虫害发生强度均显著增加。随着粮食作物病虫害发生面积增大,其发生强度均呈增加趋势。病害与虫害相比,无论是发生面积,还是发生强度,粮食作物的虫害均高于病害。粮食作物病虫害主要分布在我国中东部的粮食主产区,西部地区主要粮食作物病虫害发生相对较轻。为了有效地防止或减少病虫害等生物灾害对粮食生产安全的影响,目前应当加强农田景观变化和气候变化等对粮食农作物病虫害的影响诊断、发生与灾变的风险评估和监测预警,改善农田生态环境,开展区域性农田生态系统病虫害整合治理研究,并建立相应的对策。     

Mechanism of plant–microbe interaction and its utilization in disease-resistance breeding for modern agriculture

Plant diseases pose a major and constant threat to crop production and food security in modern agriculture. While application of pesticides can be a cost to the environment and human health, development and utilization of resistant cultivars is the most effective, economical, and eco-friendly approach to disease control. Using resistant cultivars is especially important for organic agriculture. Increasing breakthroughs have been made in understanding the mechanism of plant–microbe interaction. A current challenge now is how to apply the new knowledge to more effectively create disease-resistant crop cultivars. Integration of plant breeding and plant pathology is necessary to underpin crop improvement for food and other plant-based production. In this review, we summarize our current understanding on the mechanism of plant–microbe interaction and discuss the strategies for disease-resistance breeding of crop cultivars.     

A critique of studies evaluating glyphosate effects on diseases associated with Fusarium spp.

With the large-scale adoption of glyphosate-resistant crops in North America, there are concerns that non-target microbial populations might be affected by increased frequency of glyphosate use. Stimulation of fungal species associated with crop diseases, including Fusarium spp., has been observed in laboratory and glasshouse experiments. Although field surveys in Saskatchewan detected positive associations between the incidence of Fusarium head blight and application of glyphosate formulations, few field experiments have been successful at demonstrating a stimulatory effect of glyphosate on crop diseases, including diseases associated with Fusarium spp. Taken at face value, there is little evidence from experimental field trials to support a causative link between glyphosate and crop diseases associated with Fusarium spp. However, we are concerned that the experimental field trials investigating links between glyphosate and Fusarium spp. are not representative of interactions that occur under actual farming conditions. In addition, inadequate consideration may have been given to microbial ecology during the design and maintenance of these experimental field trials. At this time, there is insufficient evidence to prove or disprove a link between glyphosate and crop diseases associated with Fusarium spp. and this area should receive high research priority, given the rapid and widespread increase in glyphosate use.     

Integrated crop management, the basis for environment friendly crop protection of potatoes

Relatively large amounts of pesticides are needed to control diseases and pests in modern, intensive potato production. Integrated crop management offers a way of reducing the need for pesticides. It aims to reduce costs and improve the quality of the product and of the production methods, while maintaining soil fertility and the quality of the environment. The components of integrated crop management are described. Prevention of diseases and pests has high priority. If diseases or pests are present, non-chemical control methods are preferred and chemical control is based on economic criteria and the monitoring of the soil and crops. The contribution of integrated crop management to the control of two important fungal diseases, late blight (Phytophthora infestans), and stem canker (Rhizoctonia solani) and of one pest, potato cyst nematode (Globodera spp..) is described. The prospects for further development of integrated crop protection are discussed.     

The use of host resistance in disease management of rust in common bean

Bean rust, caused by Uramyces appendiculatus, is one of the major diseases in dry and snap bean production world-wide. Numerous advancements in disease management have been made to reduce rust losses. Host resistance is an important component of rust management. However, durability of disease resistance has often been short due to the use of single genes for resistance interacting with extremely high virulence diversity of the bean rust fungus. The challenge to increase durability of resistance has led to strategies such as gene pyramiding of race-specific resistance, selection and use of partial resistance, and investigation and discovery of leaf morphological features that may slow the rust epidemic. Germplasm with multiple sources of rust resistance has been developed in specific bean seed classes and released for public and commercial use in intensive production systems such as those in the United States. However, progress to develop rust resistant germplasm for the subsistence agriculture of Latin America and Africa where intercropping and mixed cultivars dominate the production system has been slow. Incorporation of high yielding, disease-resistant components as partial replacement in farmer's mixtures has the potential to reduce severity in the crop and increase yield in the presence of rust. This strategy would not erode the genetic diversity that is historically known to enhance resistance durability and for many years has given stability in production in the subsistent agriculture systems.     

Potato production and protection in Poland in the 1990s1

Potato is an important crop for Polish agriculture, now grown on an area of 1.8 million ha, with an annual production of about 35 million t. The crop is used for fodder (pork production), human consumption and as a raw material for various branches of industry. High quantity and quality are essential for proper utilization. The main limiting factors in Polish potato production are: water (shortage or excess), seed potato quality, cultivation practices, and damage by pests, diseases and weeds. Improving the economics of potato production depends on decreasing the acreage and increasing the extent of proper protection. The major constraint is late blight (Phytophthora infestans) which causes yield losses estimated at 22.8%. Blight control is indispensable. The level of resistance among Polish cultivars, both in haulm and tuber, is not satisfactory, so more intensive resistance breeding is needed. Chemical control has increased in popularity, but improper use of phenylamides has created new problems. Further progress will depend on cost-effective methods of control and reliable use of fungicides.     

Removing constraints to sustainable food production: new ways to exploit secondary metabolism from companion planting and GM

The entire process of agricultural and horticultural food production is unsustainable as practiced by current highly intensive industrial systems. Energy consumption is particularly intensive for cultivation, and for fertilizer production and its incorporation into soil. Provision of nitrogen contributes a major source of the greenhouse gas, N₂O. All losses due to pests, diseases and weeds are of food for which the carbon footprint has already been committed and so crop protection becomes an even greater concern. The rapidly increasing global need for food and the aggravation of associated problems by the effects of climate change create a need for new and sustainable crop protection. The overall requirement for sustainability is to remove seasonal inputs, and consequently all crop protection will need to be delivered via the seed or other planting material. Although genetic modification (GM) has transformed the prospects of sustainable crop protection, considerably more development is essential for the realisation of the full potential of GM and thereby consumer acceptability. Secondary plant metabolism offers wider and perhaps more robust new crop protection via GM and can be accomplished without associated yield loss because of the low level of photosynthate diverted for plant defence by secondary metabolism. Toxic mechanisms can continue to be targeted but exploiting non‐toxic regulatory and signalling mechanisms should be the ultimate objective. There are many problems facing these proposals, both technical and social, and these are discussed but it is certainly not possible to stay where we are in terms of sustainability. The evidence for success is mounting and the technical opportunities from secondary plant metabolism are discussed here. © 2019 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

Integrated pest management of coffee for small-scale farmers in East Africa: needs and limitations

Coffee in East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) is an important cash and export crop for small-scale farmers. The crop suffers heavy yield losses due to damage caused by a wide range of indigenous pests (insects, diseases, nematodes and weeds). Current recommended pest control measures include a combination of cultural, resistant/tolerant cultivars and the use of broad spectrum chemical pesticides. Chemical pesticides are far more popular at the farm level than any of the other recommended pest control measures. Coffee pest control strategies are often aimed at individual pests with little consideration of the implications for the total coffee pest complex and its agro-ecosystem. This unilateral approach has resulted in increased pest pressure on coffee and some of its companion crops, outbreak of new pests of coffee, development of pest strains resistant to the cheap and commonly available chemical pesticides, increased environmental problems, increased health risks to man and livestock and an overall increase in the costs of coffee production, thus forcing many farmers to neglect their coffee plantations. Measures to alleviate the above problems, particularly the high production costs, are needed to improve coffee production and increase the cash return to the small-scale farmer. Integrated pest management (IPM) offers the best prospects for solving the above problems. However, lack of national IPM policies, poor extension systems, inefficient research-extension-farmer linkage and the lack of a holistic approach will delay the development and implementation of appropriate, acceptable and sustainable IPM practices.     

Comparative biology of different plant pathogens to estimate effects of climate change on crop diseases in Europe

This review describes environmental factors that influence severity of crop disease epidemics, especially in the UK and north-west Europe, in order to assess the effects of climate change on crop growth and yield and severity of disease epidemics. While work on some diseases, such as phoma stem canker of oilseed rape and fusarium ear blight of wheat, that combine crop growth, disease development and climate change models is described in detail, climate-change projections and predictions of the resulting biotic responses to them are complex to predict and detailed models linking climate, crop growth and disease development are not available for many crop-pathogen systems. This review uses a novel approach of comparing pathogen biology according to ‘ecotype’ (a categorization based on aspects such as epidemic type, dissemination method and infection biology), guided by detailed disease progress models where available to identify potential future research priorities for disease control. Consequences of projected climate change are assessed for factors driving elements of disease cycles of fungal pathogens (nine important pathogens are assessed in detail), viruses, bacteria and phytoplasmas. Other diseases classified according to ‘ecotypes’ were reviewed and likely changes in their severity used to guide comparable diseases about which less information is available. Both direct and indirect effects of climate change are discussed, with an emphasis on examples from the UK, and considered in the context of other factors that influence diseases and particularly emergence of new diseases, such as changes to farm practices and introductions of exotic material and effects of other environment changes such as elevated CO₂. Good crop disease control will contribute to climate change mitigation by decreasing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture while sustaining production. Strategies for adaptation to climate change are needed to maintain disease control and crop yields in north-west Europe.     

Cacao diseases: important threats to chocolate production worldwide

ABSTRACT Theobroma cacao, cacao, is an ancient, neotropical domesticate. It is now grown throughout the humid, lowland tropics and is the basis of a multibillion dollar confectionary trade. Diverse diseases impact production of the crop. They reduce yields by ca. 20%, but could cause far greater losses if certain highly damaging diseases were to become more widely distributed. Among the most potentially dangerous of these diseases are frosty pod, caused by Moniliophthora roreri, and witches' broom, caused by M. perniciosa (previously Crinipellis perniciosa). These two diseases occur only in the Western Hemisphere, and severe losses would follow their introduction to West Africa and Asia, where ca. 86% of all cacao production occurs. Elsewhere, Cacao swollen shoot virus and the damaging black pod agent, Phytophthora megakarya, are found in Western Africa; whereas vascular streak dieback, caused by Oncobasidium theobromae, is present only in Asia. Breeding programs are challenged by minimal resistance to some of the diseases. Progress that has been made is threatened by the "emergence" of other serious diseases, such as Ceratocystis wilt (Ceratocystis cacaofunesta). During this symposium, new insights are discussed on the biology, origins, pathology and phylogeny of the pathogens; as well as the biological, chemical and genetic management of the diseases that they cause.     

我国农林园艺作物土传病害发生和防治现状及对策分析

土传病害正日趋成为限制我国农林业生产可持续发展的重要因素。本文简要分析了我国农林植物土传病害加重的原因,概述了我国农林植物土传病害的发生状况,总结了土传病害发生和为害的特点,总结分析了现有各类土传病害防治措施的优点和弊端,提出了今后研究中应予加强的课题和技术。     

Current situation and prospects of potato production in Ukraine1

Total potato production has been maintained in Ukraine, but the share of production on private plots has recently increased from 65% to 97% and the efficiency of production has declined. Protection of the potato crop from pests has suffered particularly. Scientific institutions continue to breed new cultivars (particularly with resistance to wart and cyst nematodes), and the seed-potato production system is being maintained and improved. However, these systems were designed for large-scale production on collective and state farms and have to be adapted to the realities of private production.     

The geographical distribution of sunflower diseases in China

In various areas of China, the fourth largest sunflower-producing country in the world, 25 sunflower diseases have been reported: 19 caused by fungi, one virus disease and five caused by different species of broomrape. Their geographical distribution and economic significance are discussed. Fungi are the most prevalent disease causing agents in every region. More species of broomrape have been recorded in China than in any other country in the world. Orobanche coerulescens has not previously been reported to attack sunflower but is an important cause of disease in China. The number of diseases recorded differs among the regions, with 14 in North-east China, 11 each in North, North-west and South-west China, 10 in East China and six in Central and South China. This distribution broadly corresponds to the intensity of sunflower production. Only Puccinia helianthi and Septoria helianthi are reported in all the regions; 64% of the diseases are restricted to one or two regions. Alternaria helianthi, Septoria helianthi, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Orobanche coerulescens are considered to be the most important, causing 10-50% losses in yield, and even crop failure in some areas in some years. Much work remains to be done on disease control to promote the development of sunflower production in China.     

Pesticide Use and Mycotoxin Production in Fusarium and Aspergillus Phytopathogens

The major mycotoxigenic species of Fusarium and Aspergillus phytopathogens have been identified in this review. Since fungicides are widely used to control crop diseases caused by these fungi, it is pertinent to assess efficacy with respect to mycotoxin production. In both laboratory studies with pure cultures of phytopathogens and field trials with crop plants, the overall evidence concerning the effectiveness of fungicides is contradictory and in certain cases somewhat unexpected. In particular, at sub-lethal doses of a number of fungicides including carbendazim, tridemorph, difenoconazole and tebuconazole with triadimenol, mycotoxin production from Fusarium phytopathogens may increase. Furthermore, the efficacy of propiconazole and thiabendazole in the control of deoxynivalenol production from F. graminearum is not consistent. Evidence has been presented to suggest, for the first time, that fungicide-resistance in F. culmorum may be accompanied by a more persistent pattern of mycotoxin production. The limited evidence on the effects of fungicides on mycotoxin production in Aspergillus species is also conflicting. Under laboratory conditions, miconazole and fenpropimorph have been shown to increase aflatoxin production from A. parasiticus. Moreover, fenpropimorph increased production of the more toxic aflatoxin B1. Since fungal infection of plant products is often preceded by insect damage, there is interest in the effectiveness of insecticides to reduce infestation, infection and mycotoxin contamination. Additionally, insecticides may be effective in their own right, causing a direct effect on mycotoxin synthesis. The bulk of the evidence relates to effects on aflatoxin (AF) components B1, B2, G1 and G2. Under laboratory conditions, AFB1 production was most resistant to inhibition by insecticides, followed by AFG1, AFG2 and AFB2. This pattern of inhibition was particularly consistent for the organophosphorus insecticides. In one field study, Bux and carbaryl were considerably more effective than naled in reducing AFB1 contamination of maize kernels. It is concluded that if pesticide control is to be more effective in the future, additional criteria may be required in developing evaluation protocols for candidate compounds. In particular, the issue of fungicide-resistance in relation to mycotoxin production needs to be addressed in a concerted programme of research. Additionally, the potential of breeding and selecting cultivars resistant to disease caused by toxigenic fungi needs to be exploited in a parallel search for an environmentally acceptable solution to the question of mycotoxin contamination of plant products.     

The Effects of Cultural Measures on Cereal Pests and Their Role in Integrated Pest Management

The influences of cultural control measures on invertebrate pests and their natural enemies in cereals (wheat, barley and oats) are described and discussed, with emphasis on the major pests in north-west Europe. Possibilities for additive and synergistic combinations of cultural measures are identified, together with opportunities for integrating cultural measures with chemical and biological control where appropriate. Recent studies confirm the central role of cultural control measures in integrated pest management and integrated production of cereal crops. However, cultural measures often have opposing effects on different pests as well as diseases and weeds, so that appropriate measures must be selected on the basis of an assessment of the risks from key pests, diseases and weeds. Crop rotation is not an important means of controlling cereal pests, but its use is recommended for control of cereal diseases and weeds, as well as pests of crops grown in rotation with cereals. Diversification of crops and non-crop habitats in predominantly cereal growing areas is thought to increase numbers of certain parasitoids and polyphagous predators of cereal pests. The presence of weeds or an intercrop in a field together with cereals may reduce the severity of aphid and slug damage to cereals. Trap cropping has not yet been adequately tested in wheat, barley or oats. Cover crops reduce damage by wheat bulb fly in a following wheat crop, but increase the risk of slug damage. Resistance to a wide range of cereal aphid species has been identified in wheat and barley, but in Europe, more emphasis is placed on selecting cultivars with resistance to cereal diseases rather than pest resistance. Resistance in wheat to wheat bulb fly and wheat blossom midge is recorded, and resistance to slug damage has been reported in some laboratory studies. Early sowing of winter cereals results in more damage by certain dipterous pests and increased numbers of the aphid vectors of barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV), but early sowing results in less damage by wheat bulb fly and slugs in autumn/winter and by late infestations of aphids in summer. Avoidance of ploughing results in reduced incidence of wheat bulb fly, yellow cereal fly and aphids, but increased numbers of slugs, wheat blossom midge and bibionid larvae. Avoidance of ploughing can result in greater numbers of certain polyphagous predators, particularly in the first weeks following crop establishment. The presence of straw residues results in increased slug populations, but reduced incidence of yellow cereal fly and wheat blossom midge. Preparation of fine, firm seedbeds discourages attack by slugs and wheat bulb fly on cereals. Drilling at slightly greater depth in rough cloddy seedbeds helps to protect wheat seeds from slug damage. Nitrogen fertiliser applied in spring can help cereal plants compensate for losses by wheat bulb fly or slugs. However, nitrogen applications tend to result in increased summer infestations of aphids.     

Crop Rotation and Soil Pathogens — Trends in Germany

The need to cut costs has led to a simplification of crop rotation in several fields of plant cultivation. The results of Thormann, who has grown wheat continuously on parts of his farmland for 10 years, are discussed. Also, the preliminary results of our own experiments with increasing proportions of wheat and barley suggest that more wheat and barley may be cultivated in crop rotation than is allowed according to the conventional limits determined by the increase of foot rot diseases and cereal root eelworm. Even in successive crops of maize the problem of soil-borne pathogens can be tackled: the spread of blister smut is stopped by the control of the frit fly and by selection of tolerant varieties; root and stem rots of maize are overcome by the selection of appropriate varieties, too. On the contrary, the potato root eelworm is a serious pest in all sites of intensive potato production. Only an integrated control including the use of resistant varieties and the application of nematicides gives success. Much research work has to be done mainly to get more information on the biotical defence mechanisms of the soil.     

Global crop production and the efficacy of crop protection - current situation and future trends

Actual and potential crop losses of eight major food and cash crops have been estimated by evaluating data from literature and field experiments. Total losses were calculated from yield reductions due to pathogens, animal pests and weeds on a regional, continental and global level. Since 1965, worldwide production of most crops has increased considerably. Simultaneously, crop losses in wheat, potatoes, barley and rice increased by 4 to 10 percent, in maize, soybean, cotton and coffee losses remained unchanged or slightly decreased. The efficacy of crop protection practices was calculated as the percentage of potential losses prevented by control. The efficacy is highest in cotton (55 percent), it reaches only 34 to 38 percent in the food crops rice, wheat and maize. The variability among cropping areas is high: In Western Europe, 61 percent of potential crop losses is prevented, in North America and Oceania 44, in all other regions 38 percent. Due to the small share of Western Europe in worldwide production of 8 percent, the efficacy of actual crop protection worldwide is only 40 percent.In view of population growth and rising food demand crop production has to be increased substantially. As potential loss rates often increase with attainable yields high productivity largely depends on effective crop protection management. Scenarios for the production of food crops by the year 2025 in developed and in developing countries are given. Recent and future developments in crop protection can contribute to establish sustainability in agriculture and to preserve natural resources. However, although effective control methods have been developed for most biotic yield constraints, the use of crop protection products is regulated by economic considerations rather than by food demand.     

植保无人飞机低空低容量喷雾技术应用与展望

近十年来,我国植保无人飞机迅猛发展,应用的农作物范围越来越广,不仅在水稻、小麦、玉米等主要粮食作物得到了应用,在橡胶、槟榔等高大植株的病虫害防治中更有其独特优势,已经初步形成了我国植保无人飞机低空低容量喷雾的喷头配置、配套药剂、飞防助剂、作业参数等技术体系,对于重要农作物病虫害如稻纵卷叶螟、水稻纹枯病、小麦蚜虫、玉米黏虫等防治效果均在80%以上,在各地病虫害防控中发挥了重要作用。但是,植保无人飞机喷雾作业过程中,还存在炸机或失控、雾滴飘移药害、药液分层结块、防治效果不稳定等问题。通过汇总分析植保无人飞机在重要病虫草害防治工作的成功经验和安全事故,本文提出植保无人飞机低容量喷雾技术将会得到更广泛的应用,植保无人飞机专用药剂和配套助剂、变量施药、多传感器数据融合、多机协同、精准施药、施药标准和规范等都将得到长足的发展,为现代农业和智慧农业发展提供技术支持。     

The impact of global warming on plant diseases and insect vectors in Sweden

Cold winters and geographic isolation have hitherto protected the Nordic countries from many plant pathogens and insect pests, leading to a comparatively low input of pesticides. The changing climate is projected to lead to a greater rise in temperature in this region, compared to the global mean. In Scandinavia, a milder and more humid climate implies extended growing seasons and possibilities to introduce new crops, but also opportunities for crop pests and pathogens to thrive in the absence of long cold periods. Increased temperatures, changed precipitation patterns and new cultivation practices may lead to a dramatic change in crop health. Examples of diseases and insect pest problems predicted to increase in incidence and severity due to global warming are discussed.