Effects of local anesthesia and intravenous naloxone on the changes in behaviour and plasma concentrations of cortisol produced by castration and tail docking with tight rubber rings in young lambs.

The reliability of some behavioral and physiological indices used for the recognition and assessment of acute pain in lambs after castration and tail docking has been examined. Changes in the indices were measured after blocking neural activity with local anaesthetic (lignocaine) and after an opioid antagonist (naloxone) was administered. Six lambs, aged less than one week, were allocated randomly to each of six treatments. (i) control handling and blood sampling; (ii) castration plus tail docking with tight rubber rings; (iii) local anaesthesia; (iv) local anaesthesia followed by castration and tail docking; (v) intravenous naloxone only (0.2 mg kg-1); and (vi) intravenous naloxone followed by castration and tail docking. Local anaesthesia eliminated the behavioural and plasma cortisol changes which usually follow castration and tail docking. Naloxone had a limited effect on the increase in cortisol but altered the behaviour. The results support the view that such indices are useful for assessment of the response to acute pain and that, although endogenous opioids do reduce pain in young lambs after castration and tail docking, the effect is small.     

Topical anaesthesia alleviates short-term pain of castration and tail docking in lambs

Objective To investigate the effect of a topical anaesthetic formulation on pain alleviation, wound healing and systemic levels of local anaesthetic actives in lambs undergoing castration and tail docking. Design Three placebo-controlled and/or randomised experiments were conducted using three groups of Merino lambs (n = 62, 68 and 19) undergoing routine castration and tail docking. Procedure Surgical castration, with either surgical or hot-iron tail docking, was performed with and without the application of topical anaesthetic (Tri-Solfen®) or placebo. The effects of this procedure were compared with those of rubber ring castration and tail docking, and of the handled but unmarked controls. Wound pain was assessed using calibrated Von-Frey monofilaments over a 4-h period, pain-related behaviour was assessed over 5 h, wound healing was assessed at 14 and 28 days, and the plasma levels of lignocaine and bupivacaine were determined. Results Rapid and up to 4 h primary hyperalgesia developed following surgical castration and tail docking in the untreated and placebo-treated lambs. It was absent in the castration wounds, and significantly reduced in the tail-docking wounds, of the treated lambs. Hot-iron docking was associated with mild and transient secondary hyperalgesia, which was abolished by the topical anaesthesia. There was a significant reduction in pain-related behaviours in treated lambs, which were not significantly different in their behaviour to the sham-operation handled controls. Plasma lignocaine and bupivacaine levels were below the toxic thresholds in all tested lambs. Conclusion Topical anaesthesia alleviates wound pain and significantly reduces pain-related behaviours in lambs undergoing surgical castration plus surgical or hot-iron tail docking, without a negative effect on wound healing or a risk of systemic toxicity.     

Effect of age at castration on behavioural response to subsequent tail docking in lambs

Objective To investigate the effects of age at castration on the subsequent behavioural response to tail docking. Study design Randomised prospective blinded experimental study. Animals Forty‐five male lambs were admitted to the study at birth. Methods The lambs were allocated into two groups for castration by rubber ring at 1 (1D, n = 20) or 10 (10D, n = 25) days of age. Following castration both groups of lambs were tail‐docked by rubber ring at between 26 and 34 days of age. Their behavioural responses to tail docking were recorded by video for 30 minutes before (n = 11) and 30 minutes after (n = 45) tail docking. Statistical differences were tested using anova with Mann‐Whitney post‐hoc testing. Results Two data sets were removed resulting in n = 19 and = 24 at 1D and 10D, respectively. A significant increase in the incidence of active and abnormal postural behaviour was seen in both groups after tail docking. Three behaviours were significantly different (p < 0.05) between the two groups. These behaviours were rolling, standing unsteadily and the total proportion of time standing with abnormal posture. These behaviours all had greater incidence in the lambs castrated at 1D of age. Conclusions Lambs castrated at 1D appeared to perceive a greater intensity of pain after subsequent tail docking than lambs castrated at 10D. Clinical relevance The timing of a single noxious stimulus in young animals can affect subsequent pain perception.     

Analgesia of newborn lambs before castration and tail docking with rubber rings

This study assessed the effects of suckled sucrose and parenteral carprofen treatment on behavioural measurements of discomfort and serum haptoglobin concentration in lambs following rubber ring castration and/or tail docking. Twenty-eight male and 20 ewe lambs were allocated to either a male or ewe lamb control group (n=4) or to one of three male and two ewe lamb treatment groups (n=8). Male lambs in one treatment group received carprofen subcutaneously (0.5 mg/kg) 30 minutes before castration and docking. Lambs in all other treatment groups suckled sucrose or colostrum immediately before castration and/or tail docking. Behavioural measurements of discomfort were made following castration or tail docking in treatment groups and also in control animals which were not castrated or tail docked. Blood sampling of animals in treatment groups for analysis of serum haptoglobin, an acute phase protein used as an indicator of an acute inflammatory response, was performed before castration or docking and at 24 and 48 hours after castration or docking. Control lambs were blood sampled at 0, 24 and 48 hours following behavioural assessment Neither suckled sucrose nor carprofen treatment altered discomfort behaviour associated with castration or tail docking. Haptoglobin levels following castration or tail docking remained close to the detection limits of the assay and were similar to those recorded in control animals.     

Effects of a topical anaesthetic formulation and systemic carprofen, given singly or in combination, on the cortisol and behavioural responses of Merino lambs to castration

Objective   To determine the effectiveness of a topical anaesthetic formulation (Tri-Solfen) with or without the administration of a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (carprofen) on the pain and distress response associated with ring or surgical castration of ram lambs.
Procedures   Merino ram lambs (n = 78) were allocated to 10 treatment groups: 4 groups of knife-castrated lambs and 4 groups of ring-castrated lambs received carprofen (4 mg/kg SC) and Tri-Solfen; 2 control groups (sham) received carprofen at 0 or 4 mg/kg SC. Measurements included plasma cortisol and haptoglobin concentrations, haematology, and behaviour, including posture.
Results   Knife-castrated lambs had higher peak cortisol and integrated cortisol responses for the first 6 h after treatment and greater concentration s of circulating acute phase proteins than ring-castrated lambs, both of which were significantly different from the sham controls. Tri-Solfen applied to the knife castration wound significantly reduced both the peak plasma cortisol concentration and the integrated cortisol response for the first 6 h and improved lying behaviour in the first 12 h. Carprofen reduced the cortisol response to knife castration at 30 min, but elevated the cortisol responses at 24 and 48 h. Carprofen nearly halved the number of acute pain behaviours associated with ring castration. There were no significant additive or synergistic effects from combining the analgesic treatments. Tri-Solfen applied to the tail wound provided no detectible benefits during ring castration + tail docking.
Conclusions   The physiological and behavioural responses suggest that ring castration has less impact on the lamb than knife castration. The specific analgesic treatments can provide modest amelioration of the pain and discomfort associated with castration. Alternative doses or application methods may enhance their efficacy.     

Blood pressure, heart rate, hormonal and other acute responses to rubber-ring castration and tail docking of lambs

AIM: To examine cardiovascular, hormonal and other physiological responses of 2-month-old lambs to rubber-ring castration and tail docking. METHODS: Twenty-two male lambs, well accustomed to handling and prepared with femoral artery and jugular vein cannulae, were studied during a 5 h control period and, at least 2 days later, for 1 h before and 4 h after castration and tail docking using rubber rings. Pressure recordings were made via femoral cannulae and blood samples for analysis of plasma constituents were taken from jugular cannulae. RESULTS: Mean systolic, diastolic and mean arterial blood pressure, heart rate and the plasma concentrations of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol all increased markedly during the first 1 h after ring castration and tail docking. Although plasma ACTH and cortisol concentrations had returned to control levels by 2.5-3 h, blood pressures and heart rate were still elevated 4 h after ring application. In contrast, there were no significant changes in mean plasma concentrations of renin, electrolytes, minerals, glucose, lactate, urea, creatinine, total carbon dioxide and total proteins, plasma osmolality or the haematocrit after ring application. There were no significant changes in the mean values for any parameter during the 5 h control period or the 1 h period before ring application. CONCLUSION: Systolic, diastolic and mean arterial blood pressure and heart rate may be more sensitive than plasma ACTH or cortisol concentrations as indices of low-grade pain induced by ring castration and tail docking. Alternatively, it is possible that by 4 h after ring placement a small shift in sympathetic tone still persists in the absence of low-grade pain.     

Quantification of the pain and distress responses to castration in young lambs

Pain and distress following castration were assessed in lambs using three indicators: behaviour, plasma cortisol and mechanical nociceptive thresholds. Three castration methods: rubber ring (RR), combined ring and Burdizzo clamp (CM) and surgery (SU) were compared. The effects of castration following local anaesthetic pre-treatment (LA) and castration performed under general anaesthetic (GA) were compared to castration performed with no anaesthetic. This gave a 4 x 3 x 3 block design i.e. 36 experimental treatments. Six lambs were allocated to each treatment i.e. 216 lambs were used in all. SU produced the greatest response, followed by RR then CM castration. LA abolished the responses to RR and CM castration but had no effect on the response to SU castration. GA did not reduce the responses to RR and SU but abolished the rise in mechanical nociceptive thresholds and markedly attenuated active pain behaviours in lambs CM castrated without anaesthesia. This suggests that the clamping procedure itself rather than post-castration pain and distress is responsible for the rise in nociceptive thresholds and active pain behaviours in CM castrated lambs.     

Acute cortisol responses of lambs castrated and docked using rubber rings with or without a castration clamp

Objective To measure the plasma cortisol response in lambs castrated and docked by three different methods (ring castration and tail docking, ring and clamp castration and tail docking; ring and clamp castration and ring tail docking) for 4 h after treatment.
Design A physiological study with controls.
Procedure A rubber ring was applied to the scrotum. Then the castration clamp was placed, distal to the ring, on each spermatic cord such that there was no overlap of the crush lines.
Results There were no differences in the cortisol secretion of the lambs castrated and tail docked by the ring only and by the ring plus castration clamp methods. Using the castration clamp in addition to the ring on the tail had no effect on cortisol secretion.
Conclusions Using the castration clamp did not appear to reduce the cortisol response to ring castration and docking, as demonstrated elsewhere, because the areas of uncrushed tissue between the two castration clamp crush lines allowed nociception from ischemic scrotal tissue to be transmitted cranially via undamaged nerve fibers.     

Acute cortisol responses of lambs to ring castration and docking after the injection of lignocaine into the scrotal neck or testes at the time of ring application

OBJECTIVE: To test whether injecting lignocaine into the scrotal neck 5 to 10 s before or into both testes immediately after ring castration and docking wound significantly reduce the plasma cortisol response to castration and docking. DESIGN: A physiological study with controls. PROCEDURE: Lambs were given one of six treatments: control handling, injection of lignocaine into scrotal neck, injection of lignocaine into both testes, ring castration and docking, ring castration and docking after lignocaine was injected into the scrotal neck, and ring castration and docking before lignocaine was injected into both testes. Blood samples were taken before and regularly after treatment and analysed for plasma cortisol concentrations. RESULTS: The plasma cortisol concentrations of lambs castrated and docked after lignocaine had been injected into the scrotal neck were significantly lower between 20 and 60 min after treatment than in lambs castrated and docked without local anaesthesia. Injecting lignocaine into the testes after ring application did not significantly reduce the cortisol response to ring castration and docking. CONCLUSIONS: Lignocaine injected into the scrotal neck 5 to 10 s before ring castration will reduce the cortisol response and by inference the pain associated with ring castration.     

Randomised, controlled field trial of two new techniques for the castration and tail docking of lambs less than two days of age

Two methods to reduce the pain associated with the castration and tail docking of lambs with rubber rings were tested by 10 shepherds, each using 60 housed lambs. In 20 of the lambs the innervation to the scrotum, testes and tail was crushed with a 'Big Nipper' bloodless castrator, and in 20 local anaesthetic (2 per cent lignocaine with adrenaline) was injected with a newly developed high-pressure jet injector under the rubber rings after they had been applied; 10 lambs were given a placebo treatment and 10 were treated by the shepherds' routine elastrator ring procedure. Both new methods significantly decreased the incidence of limb and tail movement by 78 per cent and the time spent by the lambs in abnormal postures, when compared with either the shepherds' routine treatment or the placebo treatment. An experienced observer and most of the shepherds also assessed that the lambs suffered signficantly less pain when treated by the two new methods than when they were treated with rubber rings alone. No detrimental long-term effects of the two new methods were observed. On average the new methods took 68 seconds to apply, compared with 29 seconds for the rubber rings; of the two new methods most shepherds preferred using the pressure jet injector.     

Effects of early human handling on the pain sensitivity of young lambs

Objective Pain sensitivity of lambs changes over the first weeks of life. However, the effects of early treatments such as human handling on pain sensitivity are unknown for this species. This study investigated the effects of regular early gentle human handling on the pain sensitivity of lambs, indicated by their behavioural responses to tail docking. Study design Prospective part‐blinded experimental study. Animals Twenty‐nine singleton Coopworth lambs (females n = 14, males n = 15). Methods Starting at one day of age, lambs were either handled twice daily for 2 weeks (Handled), were kept in the presence of lambs who were being handled but were not handled themselves (Presence), or were exposed to a human only during routine feeding and care (Control). At 3 weeks of age, all lambs were tail docked using rubber rings. Changes in behaviour due to docking were calculated and change data were analyzed using two‐way anova with treatment and test pen as main factors. Results All lambs showed significant increases in the frequency and duration of behaviours indicative of pain, including ‘abnormal’ behaviours, and decreases in the frequency and duration of ‘normal’ behaviours after docking. Handled lambs showed a smaller increase in the time spent lying abnormally after docking than did Control lambs (mean transformed change in proportion of 30 minutes spent ± SE: Control 0.55 ± 0.04; Handled 0.38 ± 0.03; Presence 0.48 ± 0.03; C versus H t = 3.45, p = 0.007). Conclusions and clinical relevance These results provide some evidence that handling early in life may reduce subsequent pain sensitivity in lambs. While the behavioural effects of handling on pain behaviour were subtle, the results suggest, at the very least, that early handling does not increase pain sensitivity in lambs and suggests there is still flexibility postnatally in the pain processing system of a precocial species.     

Stress responses in lambs docked and castrated surgically or by the application of rubber rings

A comparative study has been made in lambs 3 to 6 weeks of age of the behavioural responses and changes in plasma immunoreactive beta-endorphin (ir beta-endorphin) and cortisol after docking or docking plus castration by the application of rubber rings or by surgery. The use of rubber rings on lambs at this age was characterised by very agitated behaviour indicative of considerable distress for a period of up to 1 h. In contrast, surgery was accompanied by some post-operative shock exhibited by reduced exploratory and social behaviour, at least in the lambs exposed to docking plus castration. In the latter group there were highly significant increases in both plasma ir beta-endorphin and cortisol concentrations that may be consistent with the induction of stress-induced analgesia. We conclude that surgery caused less distress than the rubber rings, and is therefore preferable for docking and castration of lambs 3 to 6 weeks of age.     

EEG changes in 4-week-old lambs in response to castration, tail docking and mulesing

OBJECTIVE: To interpret changes in EEG in relation to perceived pain of castration, mulesing and docking in lambs. DESIGN: Analysis of covariance (randomised block design) to determine the effects of treatment on eight bandwidths of the EEG frequency spectrum. PROCEDURE: Ninety-eight, 3- to 4-week-old lambs were subjected to one of seven treatments: castration, tail docking, mulesing, ear tagging, sham shearing, formalin injection (to induce lameness) and handling. EEG was recorded for 15 min before treatment, during treatment, and for 15 min after treatment. RESULTS: Consistently lower mean power values across all bandwidths of the EEG were found at the time of mulesing and docking than at handling and shearing (P < 0.01). Formalin injection resulted in lower power values than handling and shearing (P < 0.01). Castration had lower power values than handling and shearing. Similarly, for 15 min after treatment, mulesing and formalin injection had significantly lower power values than handling, shearing, ear tagging and castration (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The consistent effects associated with mulesing, docking and castration compared to handling, shearing and ear tagging suggest that mulesing at both the time of treatment and during 15 min after treatment results in a response that is similar to that of induced lameness. Docking and castration result in a response at the time of treatment that is similar to induced lameness and mulesing, but during 15 min after treatment is similar to the non-noxious control treatments. However, the depressing effects on the mean power values are the reverse of that anticipated from a previously developed pain model, highlighting the need for further research to develop this technology to evaluate pain associated with husbandry procedures.     

Acute cortisol responses and wound healing in lambs after ring castration plus docking with or without application of a castration clamp to the scrotum

OBJECTIVE: To test whether the cortisol response to ring castration plus docking is reduced by additional application of a castration clamp across the full width of the scrotum distal to the ring. DESIGN: A physiological study with controls. PROCEDURE: Lambs, 3 to 6 weeks of age, were castrated using a ring or ring plus castration clamp applied for 6 or 10 s and docked using a ring. Blood samples were taken before and regularly for about 4 h after treatment and analysed for plasma cortisol concentrations. The healing of the scrotal wounds was monitored for 6 weeks after castration. RESULTS: The plasma cortisol concentrations were lower only at 60 min after treatment in lambs castrated with a clamp placed on the scrotum for 10 s after ring castration and docking than in lambs castrated and docked by ring alone. Scrotal wounds healed more quickly after ring plus clamp than after ring only castration. CONCLUSIONS: The castration clamp had at most a marginal effect on the cortisol response to ring castration and docking of 3- to 6-week-old lambs, but it did seem to improve the rate of healing.     

Do psychological and physiological stressors alter the acute pain response to castration and tail docking in lambs?

Objective To investigate whether events that may be stressful to young lambs, including simulated infection or social isolation, modulate pain experienced by lambs following castration and tail docking (C/D). Study design Randomised, controlled, prospective study. Animals Fifty male lambs born to 46 second‐parity Mule ewes. Methods Lambs were allocated randomly to one of four groups, experiencing either a potential stressor or handling on day 2 after birth, followed by C/D or handling only on day 3. Quantitative sensory testing (QST) data [mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNT), Semmes Weinstein filaments (SW), response to cold] and serum cortisol concentration were measured at time points after application of treatments to lambs on days 2 and 3 after birth. The treatment groups were LPS, injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide IV on day 2, C/D on day 3; ISOL, isolation from the dam for 10 minutes on day 2, C/D on day 3; CAST, handling only on day 2, C/D on day 3; CONT, handled only on days 2 and 3. Results Castration and tail docking caused transient hypoalgesia as measured by MNT and SW. Simulated infection and isolation caused hyperalgesia 3 hours after application, indicated by a reduction in MNT, however they did not alter the pain response to C/D compared to lambs in the CAST group. Injection of LPS and C/D caused increased serum cortisol concentration. The magnitude of the cortisol response to C/D was not altered by prior exposure to either LPS or isolation. Conclusions and clinical relevance LPS and isolation did not modulate the response to C/D but did cause hyperalgesia. This highlights the importance of flock health management and husbandry techniques to reduce the incidence of either systemic infection or psychological stressors in young lambs.     

Effects of tail docking and castration on behaviour and plasma cortisol concentrations in young lambs

Behavioural and cortisol responses of lambs to the usual husbandry practices of castration and, or, tail docking using tight rubber rings were investigated between birth and seven days old. There were four treatments: control handling and blood sampling (n = 52), tail-docking (T) (n = 57), castration plus tail-docking (CT) (n = 54) and intravenous adrenocorticotrophin injection (ACTH) (n = 52). After treatment there was a transient rise in plasma cortisol concentration, the magnitude and duration of which increased in the following order; control, T, CT and ACTH. Behavioural characteristics indicative of distress included restlessness (standing up and lying down frequently, rolling, kicking, stamping), lateral recumbency, immobility with neck extension and hyperventilation. Using changes in cortisol concentrations and behaviour the lamb responses were characterised as reflecting 'mild disturbance without distress' (control, ACTH), 'mild distress' (T) and 'marked distress' (CT). The mild distress lasted for about 30 minutes in T lambs and marked distress for about 60 minutes in CT lambs.     

Changes in the cortisol responses of lambs to tail docking, castration and ACTH injection during the first seven days after birth

Cortisol responses of Dorset and Scottish Blackface lambs were investigated at six ages between birth and seven days. There were four treatments: control handling and blood sampling (n = 52), tail docking (T) (n = 57), castration plus tail docking (CT) (n = 54), and intravenous adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) injection (n = 60). Most lambs exhibited transient rises in plasma cortisol concentrations after treatment and the results in individuals were expressed as the area under the cortisol curve (integrated response). Postnatal changes in the integrated responses of control, T and CT lambs differed significantly between the two breeds; in Dorsets they increased markedly between four hours and one day and then decreased, whereas in Scottish Blackface lambs there were no significant changes. The cortisol responses of ACTH lambs decreased markedly between four hours and seven days in both breeds. The results shed light on postnatal changes in the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and suggest for both breeds that the average increments in ACTH secretion caused by noxious stimuli increased markedly during the first one to three days after birth. Whether this reflected parallel increases in the levels of distress experienced by the lambs remains to be clarified.     

Influence of local anaesthesia on pain and distress induced by bloodless castration methods in young lambs

Behavioural and cortisol responses of lambs were used as indicators of pain and distress to assess short- and long-term effects of bloodless castration methods with and without local anaesthesia. Eighty lambs, aged 2-7 days, were control handled or castrated by crushing- Burdizzo- or rubber ring method with and without local anaesthesia. Either 4 mg/kg diluted lidocaine, or corresponding volumes of physiologic sodium chloride solution were distributed in both spermatic cords and the scrotal neck. The serum cortisol response was monitored for 48 h, behavioural- and clinical traits over a 3-month period. The crushing castration method was excluded from the study after 10 lambs had been castrated, since this method showed severe local reactions. Local anaesthesia significantly reduced behavioural and cortisol responses after rubber ring castration and tendentially after Burdizzo castration. Prolonged or chronic pain after rubber ring castration with anaesthesia was not evident. If combined with local anaesthesia, both the rubber ring and the Burdizzo method are acceptable methods for castration of lambs up to one week of age.     

Cortisol responses of young lambs to castration and tailing using different methods

Lambs at 4-5 weeks of age were studied during the first 4 hours after castration and/or tailing using three methods in various commonly used combinations. The methods were cutting with a knife, application of constricting rubber rings and using a heated docking iron (tailing only). The integrated cortisol response (area under the cortisol curve) was determined for each lamb during the first 4 hours after treatment and was considered to reflect the overall magnitude of the lamb's acute distress response. On that basis, cut lambs (tailing only, castration only, castration plus tailing) experienced more distress than any other groups. Also the distress response (indicated by elevated plasma cortisol concentrations) lasted longer than 4 hours in cut lambs, unlike all other groups. The use of rings apparently caused similar distress when lambs were castrated only, were castrated plus tailed, or were short-scrotumed (testes pressed against the abdominal wall by a distally located scrotal ring) plus tailed. The magnitudes of distress apparently caused by tailing alone with a ring or a docking iron were similar and were lower than the distress caused by any other castration and/or tailing procedure. It is concluded that acute distress responses to these husbandry procedures would be minimised in lambs of this age if rings and/or a docking iron were used in preference to a knife.     

Welfare implications of invasive piglet husbandry procedures,methods of alleviation and alternatives: a review

Abstract

Iron administration, teeth clipping, tail docking and castration are common invasive husbandry procedures performed on piglets on commercial farms, generally within the first week of life. These procedures are performed to prevent potential health and welfare problems of piglets and/or the sow, or, with respect to castration, to enhance meat quality. The objectives of this review were firstly, to provide the rationale and scientific evidence for performing these procedures, secondly, to describe the welfare implications of these procedures, and lastly, to describe mitigation strategies or alternatives that can be used to eliminate or reduce the pain caused by these procedures. Administering supplementary iron is necessary to prevent anaemia in piglets and the procedure has a low welfare impact. The stated benefits of teeth clipping to prevent udder lesions do not appear to outweigh the risk from injury and infection in piglets following the procedure. Tail docking reduces the prevalence of tail biting, but does not eliminate this behaviour and the practice of tail docking can cause acute pain. Castration is primarily performed to reduce the occurrence of boar taint, but alternatives are now available that negate the need to perform this procedure. Teeth clipping, tail docking and castration all cause behavioural and physiological changes indicative of acute pain and can have potentially long-term negative consequences such as causing abscesses, lesions and the formation of neuromas. Therefore effective pain mitigation strategies (e.g. analgesia, local or general anaesthesia) that markedly alleviate the pain caused by these procedures are necessary to improve the welfare of piglets. Alternatively, if management practices are available that eliminate the need for performing these procedures altogether, then they should be adopted.