Average daily gain of local pigs on rural and peri-urban smallholder farms in two districts of Western Kenya

The objective of this study was to determine the average daily gain (ADG) of pigs on rural and peri-urban smallholder farms in two districts of Western Kenya, in order to establish a baseline to measure the impact of future management interventions. Average daily gain (kilograms per day) for 664 pigs weighed one, two or three times and the proportion of local and crossbreed pigs was determined. Assuming a uniform birth weight of 1 kg, ADG did not differ between pigs weighed once or twice. Overall, ADG was higher in peri-urban pigs (0.15?±?0.058 kg/day) than rural pigs (0.11?±?0.047 kg/day). Pigs at 1 to 2 months had a higher ADG than those at 3 months or 10 to 12 months and ADG was higher in crossbreed than local pigs. Over the two districts, the ADG was low (0.13?±?0.002 kg/day). Most (87.2 %) pigs were of local breed. Low ADG may be due to malnourishment, high maintenance energy expenditure, high parasite prevalence, disease, and/or low genetic potential. This low ADG of pigs raised on smallholder farms in Western Kenya indicates a high potential for improvement. The growth rate of pigs in Western Kenya must be improved using locally available feedstuffs to make efficient use of resources, promote sustainable smallholder pig production, and improve the livelihood of smallholder farmers.     

Effect of feeding oat and vetch forages on milk production and quality in smallholder dairy farms in Central Kenya

Despite the significant livestock contribution to households’ nutrition and incomes in many African smallholder farms, milk productivity remains low. Inadequate feeding is the main reason for the underperformance. To contribute towards addressing this, an on-farm feeding trial was undertaken in Ol-joro-Orok Central Kenya. A feed basket using oat (Avena sativa) cv Conway and vetch (Vicia villosa) was compared to farmers practice. Milk production (kg) and quality parameters, including butterfat, protein, lactose, and density, were monitored, and cost-benefit analysis (CBA) undertaken. Feeding both oat and vetch increased milk production by 21% (morning) and 18%, (evening), equivalent to 1.4 kg/day. Increases (%) in quality were butter fat (18.2), solid-non-fat (16.5), lactose (16.2), and protein (16.1). Concomitantly, the CBA returned positive results, supporting the hypothesis of economic advantage in using oat and vetch in milk production in the area, and possibly in other similar areas.     

Characteristics of the smallholder free-range pig production system in western Kenya

Free-range pig farming is common amongst the small-scale farmers in western Kenya. In order to determine the characteristics of this type of production system, a cross-sectional questionnaire survey on farm characteristics and management was collected from 182 farmers in Busia District. The mean farm size was one acre, while the mean number of pigs per farm was 3.6. Pigs were mainly kept as a source of income (98%) and majority were of cross breed variety (64%). The production systems included farrow to weaner (12%), porker to finisher (36%), and mixed (46%). Sixty five percent (65%) of the pigs were tethered and housing was not provided in 61% of the farms. Most of the feeds were sourced locally. Lack of castration and delayed weaning of pigs was observed on 49% and 30% of the farms, respectively. The main production constraints included pig diseases (81%) and high cost or lack of feed (81%). Haematopinus suis infestations and worm infections were considered to be the most important diseases by 71% and 55% of the farmers, respectively. Farmers had moderate knowledge on parasitic disease diagnosis with 31% and 62% not having a history of either deworming or spraying pigs with acaricides, respectively. Marketing constraints were common amongst the farmers and included poor prices and inadequate market information. In conclusion, the production system was characterized as low-input with an income objective. Future research and development approaches should focus on the integration of free-range farmers into the country’s market chains through access to extension services.     

Characterisation of smallholder pig production in Kikuyu Division, central Kenya

A three-phase study was conducted in high-potential farming and peri-urban area in Kikuyu Division central Kenya to obtain farm and management data and to monitor health and productivity of pigs in smallholder farms. The first phase was a cross-sectional study in which 87 farms (that had been selected from a total of 179 farms using a simple random selection) were visited once and data on important farm and management factors were gathered using semi-structured questionnaires. The second phase was a pilot study that was conducted in the 87 study farms for a period of 3 months to pretest the data-collection tools and to evaluate the general research methodology for the longitudinal study. The third phase was a prospective 12-month observational study in which health and productivity of pigs were monitored monthly in 76 herds that were still active and had participated in the previous studies.

The initial voluntary enrolment among the eligible farms was 99%. The median farm size was 1 acre. All the farms kept crossbreed pigs of Large White or Landrace (median nine pigs per farm). The median number of sows per herd was one. Most farmers engaged in farrow-to-finish pig-production system and most (60%) did not keep a breeding boar. The pigs were stall-fed the year round. Guard rails/piglet devices were present in 22% of the herds. Few (8%) farmers disinfected pig pens (especially the farrowing area). None of the farmers reported the use of vaccination against pig diseases. Most farmers (84 and 96%) indicated that they controlled for mange and worm infestations, respectively. To control mange, 50% of the farmers used acaricides, 34% used engine oil and 12% used both. Anthelmintics were used to control worms. No farmer had a particular control programme in place for both worms and mange. Artificial heating for piglets was not used in any of the farms. High costs of feeds (which were of variable qualities) lack of credit and genetically high-quality breeding boars and diseases were ranked highly by the farmers as the main production constraints. Thirteen percent (11/87) of farmers withdrew during the pilot study; 10 farmers had sold their pigs and one had died. Thirty-three percent (25/76) of the farms withdrew during the longitudinal study for various reasons that included death of pigs (3%; 2/76) and sale of the pigs (30%; 23/76)—mainly because of financial need.     

Cost analysis of immunisation against East Coast fever on smallholder dairy farms in Kenya

A spreadsheet model was developed and used to estimate the total cost of immunising cattle against East Coast fever (ECF) based on the infection-and-treatment method. Using data from an immunisation trial carried out on 102 calves and yearlings on 64 farms in the Githunguri division, Kiambu district, Kenya, a reference base scenario of a mean herd of five animals, a 10% rate of reaction to immunisation and a 2-day interval monitoring regimen (a total of 10 farm visits) was simulated. Under these conditions, the mean cost of immunisation per animal was US$16.48 (Ksh 955.78); this was equivalent to US$82.39 (Ksh 4778.90) per five-animal farm. A commonly reported reactor rate of 3% would decrease the cost to US$14.63 (Ksh 848.29) per animal. Reducing the number of farm monitoring visits from 10 to 7 would reduce the total cost by 10%, justified if farmers are trained to undertake some of the monitoring work. The fixed costs were 53% of the total cost of immunisation per farm. The cost of immunisation decreased with increasing number of animals per farm, showing economies of scale.     

Possibilities of establishing a smallholder pig identification and traceability system in Kenya

Tropical Animal Health and Production - Consumers have a right to safer foods, and traceability is one approach to meeting their expectations. Kenya does not have an operational animal traceability...     

Epidemiology of parasitic gastrointestinal nematode infections of ruminants on smallholder farms in central Kenya

In order to establish the infection pattern with gastrointestinal nematodes in ruminants in the central Kenya highlands, a study was carried out in 58 smallholder farms. The study involved monthly faecal examinations from sheep, goats and cattle and pasture sampling from eight communal grazing areas. Each month, six Dorper worm-free tracer lambs were introduced and four locally grazed cross-bred sheep were purchased for parasite recovery. The mean faecal egg counts (FEC) for cattle were low throughout the study period, whereas those for sheep and goats showed a seasonal pattern with high levels of infection occurring during the two main rainy seasons, especially in March, April and October. There were significant differences in egg counts over time and among farms. Haemonchus contortus was the most prevalent nematode in the tracer lambs whereas the previously exposed locally grazed sheep had significantly lower numbers of H contortus but significantly higher numbers of Trichostrongylus species The highest levels of infection in the tracer lambs occurred in November 1995 and January, May and June 1996. Based on this study, it is now possible to explore the possibility of using strategic treatments for the control of parasitic gastroenteritis in this area of Kenya.     

Multivariate analysis of management and biosecurity practices in smallholder pig farms in Madagascar

A cross-sectional study was carried out in 2005 and 2006 in three geographical areas of Madagascar to investigate and differentiate swine farm management and biosecurity practices in smallholder farming communities. Questionnaire data from a total of 709 pig farms were analysed using multiple factor analysis (MFA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). Variables describing management and biosecurity practices were organised into five groups: structure of the farm, animal-contacts, person- and vehicle-contacts, feeding, and sanitary aspects. In general, few biosecurity measures were implemented in the pig farms included in the study. Regional differences in management and biosecurity practices emerged from the MFA and were mainly due to, in order of decreasing importance: structure of the farm, sanitary aspects, feeding and animal-contacts and, to a lesser extent, person- and vehicle-contacts. HCA resulted in the differentiation of four distinct types of farms in each of two study areas, Arivonimamo and Marovoay, while no grouping could be identified amongst farms in Ambatondrazaka area. The characterisation of the different types of smallholder pig farms will allow adapting recommendations on husbandry practices and control measures in pig farms of these regions of Madagascar. The development of tailored recommendations is essential for Malagasy smallholders who have limited resources and need to make evidence-based management changes to reduce the risk of contagious diseases in their herds.     

Optimal village breeding schemes under smallholder sheep farming systems

Despite challenges in the implementation of livestock genetic improvement programs in developing regions, including centralized nucleus breeding schemes, these programs can contribute to the improvement of the livelihood of smallholder farmers. In this paper, we present a community- or village-based breeding scheme in which breeding activities are carried out by communities of smallholder farmers. We evaluated genetic responses and the rate of inbreeding from alternative village sheep breeding schemes that were based on a survey of existing flock structure and breeding management in a sheep-barley system in Ethiopia. This survey showed that individual flock sizes were small, and that the majority of farmers practiced mixed grazing and uncontrolled mating of their flocks in communal grazing lands within villages. Here we evaluated within-village schemes (selection across flocks within a village) and across-village schemes (selection across villages) at different intensities of ram selection (i.e. proportions of rams selected, P). Our results showed that under within-village schemes, intensity of selection could not be increased (i.e. P could not be decreased below 0.149) when the rate of inbreeding was constrained to an acceptable level of 0.01, resulting in low genetic gain. The most optimal scheme was found to be across-village selection with at least three villages cooperating and P = 0.05. Our results also indicated that genetic gain from village breeding schemes with mass selection and BLUP selection is comparable. Village breeding schemes can make a significant contribution to the genetic improvement of livestock in Ethiopia and other developing countries.     

Production constraints of smallholder pig farms in agro-ecological zones of Mpumalanga,South Africa

South African pig sector is a contributor to the agricultural industry. A study was conducted to identify the production constraints and compare the management practices in smallholder pig farms in Mpumalanga, South Africa. A total of 220 selected smallholder pig farmers were interviewed. Smallholder pig farming was predominated by male (64 %), age above 50 years (54 %), black Africans (98.6 %), and three quarters of the smallholder farmers were poor to just below average. Majority (80 %) have no pig husbandry training, while only 33 % received assistance from government’s Agricultural Department. In terms of stock, mixed breeds (89 %) from exotic pigs were mostly kept and majority (87 %) of the farmers kept ≤10 sows in their herds. Many farmers (75 %) engaged in risky behavior of buying auctioned-sourced boars, free-range boars, and untested boars from neighbors and relatives. Few (17 %) farmers practiced vaccination and only 10 % kept farm records. Majority of the responses on pre-weaning mortality (50 %) and post-weaning mortality (90 %) were within acceptable range of 1–10 and 1–5 % mortality rates, respectively. The lead causes of mortality were weak piglets and crushing (46 %), diarrhea (27 %), poor management knowledge (19 %), and malnutrition (16 %). Agricultural training and government incentives will facilitate improved productivity in smallholder pig farming.     

Health and production measures for smallholder pig production in Kikuyu Division, central Kenya

A longitudinal study was carried out in Kikuyu Division (a peri-urban area in central Kenyan highlands) between January 1999 and December 1999 to estimate the baseline parameters on reproductive performance of the sow, as well as health and productivity of grower and preweaning pigs of smallholder herds. Data were collected on 155 breeding pigs, 795 grower pigs and 801 preweaning piglets in 74, 50 and 40 smallholder herds, respectively, using record cards that were updated during monthly visits.

The sow-level medians were: weaning-to-service interval 3 months; interfarrowing interval 6.4 months; number of live-born piglets 9.0; and number of piglets weaned per litter 7.5. The piglet crude morbidity incidence risk was 29%. The cause-specific incidence risks for the important health problems encountered in preweaned piglets were diarrhea (4.3%), pruritus (17.1%), and skin necrosis (4.2%). The estimated crude mortality incidence risk to 8 weeks of age was 18.7%. The cause-specific mortality incidence risks to 8 weeks of age for the important causes of mortality were overlying (9.9%), savaging (2.4%), unviable piglets (2.0%) and unknown (1.9%). Overall, 78.8% of the total live-born piglet mortality occurred during the first week postpartum with 69% of these deaths being caused by overlying. The grower-pig crude morbidity incidence risk was 20% and the cause-specific incidence risks of the important health problems encountered were gut edema (1.3%), pruritus (21.1%), and unknown (2.3%). The crude mortality incidence risk was 3.8% and the important causes were gut edema and unknown causes (cause-specific mortality incidence risks of 1.3 and 1.6%, respectively). The median weight:age ratio and average daily weight gain for the grower pigs were 5.1 kg/month of age and 0.13 kg/day, respectively. For preweaning pigs, the median average daily weight gain was 0.13 g/day.     

Assessing actors in rural markets of sheep and goats in the Nyando Basin of Western Kenya: a key to improving productivity from smallholder farms

Livestock traders are a key conduit for incentives in livestock production systems. Their actions affect producer prices, investment decisions, and their livelihoods. However, smallholder farmers in rural communities of eastern Africa often have limited understanding of the marketing process and the interactions among market actors. This study was undertaken following the introduction of improved indigenous goat and sheep breeds in Climate Smart Villages of Nyando in western Kenya. We sought to understand the marketing of sheep and goats in five key rural markets used by the smallholder farmers of Nyando, to generate information on key market actors, their functions in the value chain, and their preferences for attributes in sheep and goats. Most traders (65%) in all the markets were men. Four different types of traders operated in the markets, producers, retailers, wholesalers, and brokers, each making a profit. Preference for selling sheep or goats and the animal attributes desired by the traders differed depending on the surrounding community. Markets in Kericho County of Nyando traded more goats than sheep while those in Kisumu County of Nyando traded more sheep than goats. There were no clear policies guiding pricing of animals. Prices offered to producers depended on previous days, and the number of animals available for sale at the marketing point. The collaborative group actions of the producers in the Climate Smart Villages did not extend beyond the level of production to the marketing of their livestock. A critical change is required for the smallholder farmers to derive better incomes from improved quality of animals following adoption of improved breeding and management practices. The results illustrate the need to engage rural market actors when implementing livestock improvement programs for smallholder farmers for better farm gate prices of animals, and thus achieve the improved incomes envisioned.     

Influence of distance to urban markets on smallholder dairy farming systems in Kenya

We studied influence of distance to urban markets on smallholder dairy farming system development. Farms were chosen from three locations that varied in distance to the urban market of Nakuru Town in the Kenyan highlands: urban location (UL, n?=?10) at less than 15 km distance, mid-rural location (MRL, n?=?11) in between 20 and 50 km west of Nakuru and extreme rural location (ERL, n?=?9) beyond 50 km west and south-west of Nakuru. In-depth interviews with farmers and focus group discussions with eight groups of stakeholders were held to collect narratives and data about market quality, production factors, farm performance and functions of dairy cattle. We applied thematic content analysis to qualitative information by clustering narratives according to predefined themes and used ANOVA to analyse farm data. In UL, markets were functional, with predominantly informal market chains, with a high milk price (US $ 45.1/100 kg). Inputs were available in UL markets, but prices were high for inputs such as concentrates, fodder, replacement stock and hired labour. Moreover, availability of grazing land and the high opportunity costs for family labour were limiting dairy activities. In UL, milk production per cow (6.9 kg/cow/day) and per farm (20.1 kg/farm/day) were relatively low, and we concluded that farm development was constrained by scarcity of inputs and production factors. In rural locations (MRL and ERL), markets were functional with relatively low prices (average US $ 32.8/100 kg) for milk in both formal and informal market chains. Here, concentrates were relatively cheap but also of low quality. Fodder, replacement stock and labour were more available in rural locations than in UL. In rural locations, milk production per cow (average 7.2 kg/cow/day) and per farm (average 18.5 kg/farm/day) were low, and we concluded that farm development was constrained by low quality of concentrates and low price of milk. In all locations, production for subsistence was valued since income generated was used for non-dairy expenses. A tailor-made package of interventions that targets the above constraints is recommended for farm development.     

Evaluation of smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam: Pig production management and pig performances

This study investigated the productive adaptability of pig breeds under different smallholder production conditions in Vietnam, comparing an indigenous with a Vietnamese improved breed. Fieldwork was conducted in four villages with different remoteness in North Vietnam from 2001 to 2002, in 64 households keeping the improved Mong Cai or indigenous Ban as sow breeds and progeny for fattening. Four visits per farm yielded 234 structured interviews. Reproductive performances were derived from 135 litters. Individual weights of pigs (n = 755) were obtained. Data were analysed by regression, linear and generalised linear, especially loglinear models.

Two distinct pig production systems were identified, that differed in remoteness, market access, resource availability, distribution of pig breeds and pig production intensity. Higher performances of 1.4 and 1.5 litters year^− 1, 8.4 and 8.4 piglets weaned litter^− 1, 66.6 and 93.0 kg piglets weaned sow^− 1 year^− 1, and 136 and 177 g day^− 1 ADG were found in two villages near town with semi-intensive production conditions and a high rate of improved Mong Cai sows and MC and LW × MC offspring in the observed population. Lower performances of 1.1 and 1.1 litters year^− 1, 4.6 and 5.5 piglets weaned litter^− 1, 20.5 and 30.9 kg piglets weaned sow^− 1 year^− 1, and 66 and 85 g day^− 1 ADG were observed in parallel to higher incidences of indigenous Ban pigs away from town under extensive conditions. Total live weight offtake per household per year was higher near town and in one village distant to town. MC and LW × MC remained even under demand-driven conditions below the performance potential reported for improved genotypes. Under resource-driven conditions with a saving-oriented production pattern, the higher-yielding but more demanding Mong Cai might not be an efficient production alternative as a further performance reduction can be assumed. A considerable live weight output was observed under resource-driven conditions and with a higher percentage of crossbred LW × Ban offspring in the population, possibly representing a promising production alternative. Factors influencing the performance expression of pigs, and the suitability of different methods for the assessment of performance parameters on-farm are discussed.     

The incidence of calf morbidity and mortality due to vector-borne infections in smallholder dairy farms in Kwale District, Kenya

An observational longitudinal study was carried out on 92 randomly selected smallholder farms in two coastal lowland zones of Kwale District in Kenya between December 1997 and November 1999. The objective was to estimate the incidence of the main vector-transmitted diseases in pre-weaned calves. From an initial 41 pure or cross-bred Bos taurus calves which were less than 2 months and whose birth and disease histories were known, study calves were recruited progressively and monitored until they were weaned at around 146 days. Overall, 130 calves in 67 farms were monitored and these contributed a total risk period of 30,062 days.

Disease parameters were analysed and compared as true annual and age-specific incidence rates. The incidences of East Coast fever (ECF) (23.1%) and trypanosomosis (29.1%) were the highest among the vector-borne diseases. The corresponding mortality incidence rates of ECF and trypanosomosis were 10.9 and 3.6%, respectively. The annual incidence rates of anaplasmosis and babesiosis were 10.9 and 1.2%, respectively. There was no mortality arising specifically from anaplasmosis or babesiosis. Analysis of survival times to natural infection indicated that the field challenge resulting to cases of trypanosomosis was much higher compared to the risk of either ECF or anaplasmosis. It was concluded that these vector-borne diseases constrain production of replacement stock in this coastal lowlands region of Kenya.     

Evaluation of biological and economic efficiency of smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam

This study evaluates smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam, comparing a semi-intensive system near a town with good market access, where a Vietnamese improved breed has replaced the indigenous pig breed, and an extensive system away from town, where the indigenous breed still prevails. Fieldwork was conducted in 64 households in four villages. Repeated farm visits yielded 234 structured interviews. Data were analysed by linear models and non-parametric tests. Production inputs and outputs were quantified, and feed use efficiency and economic efficiency were assessed. The gross margin was higher for semi-intensive production with the improved breed, while the benefit–cost ratio was higher under extensive conditions with the indigenous breed. The net benefit did not differ between systems. Twenty-four per cent of farmers yielded a negative net benefit. In one village under extensive conditions, live weight output from indigenous sows with crossbred offspring compared positively with the output from semi-intensive production with improved genotypes, but was associated with high inputs, making production inefficient. Results indicate that improved genotypes might not be an efficient production alternative for saving-oriented production with limited resource supply. Suitability of evaluation parameters, farmers’ production aims, and factors impacting the production success in different systems are discussed.     

A survey to identify economic opportunities for smallholder dairy farms in Bangladesh

Identified economic opportunities for planning interventions greatly increase farmers’ compliance with an extension programme. We investigated opportunities for interventions to increase dairy farmers’ income in four areas of Bangladesh, including the districts of Mymensingh, Khulna-Satkhira, Sirajgonj-Pabna and Chittagong. The data were collected from 1440 dairy farms at a one-day visit and were summarized as the difference between management targets and each herd’s calculated management indices. The average number of lactating cows, feed cost as a percentage of income from milk, milk sold as percentage of milk produced, lactating cows as a percentage of mature cows, and lactating cows as a percentage of total cattle varied from 1.5 to 3.4, from 52.5% to 92.1%, from 78.7% to 92.6%, from 81.9% to 86.7% and from 34.3% to 37.7%, respectively. The average age at first calving, calf production interval, lactation length, and milk production were 35.0–44.3 months, 14.0–17.6 months, 249–286 days and 3.5–7.2 litres, respectively, depending on the locality. The average cost for producing 100 litres of milk was 18.9–35.1 US dollars. The production cost increased when daily milk production per cow decreased (r² = 0.43–0.55). Management improvements directed towards increasing average milk production per cow per day, increasing lactation length, decreasing age to first calving, and decreasing calf production interval could expect to yield an average income increase up to a range of 676.3–1730.6 US dollars depending on the milk-producing area.     

Dairy production practices among smallholder dairy farmers in Butere/Mumias and Kakamega districts in Western Kenya

A survey was conducted on 176 smallholder dairy farms in Butere/Mumias and Kakamega districts of Western Kenya to establish the dairy production practices and constraints in the industry. There was low milk production (16.6 kg of milk per capita), which was attributed to the low number of dairy animals. The average land size was 2.4 ha with only 30.3% being allocated to pasture or fodder crops. Farmers with large farms (>2 ha) set aside bigger pieces (1.2 vs 0.4 ha) for pasture/fodder crop cultivation (p < 0.001), owned more (5.25 vs 3.18) dairy animals (p < 0.01) and produced more (9.2 vs 7.5 kg/cow per day) milk (p < 0.05) compared to those on smaller farms of less than 2 ha. The average herd size was 4.2 animals, of which only 45.0% were in milk, producing 8.0 kg/animal per day. Every kilogram of dairy meal fed increased milk production by 0.68 kg (p < 0.001). Over 90% of milk produced was consumed locally. The public institutions provided 74% of total extension services to farmers. About 49.5% of total dairy animals were bought from other districts owing to scarcity.