Evaluating critical factors to the economic feasibility of semi-intensive pig rearing in western Kenya

The purpose of this research is to assess how season, ADG, opportunity costs of farm-grown feeds, pig weight, and butcher price variation impact the economic potential of semi-intensive pig rearing. We developed a unique algorithm that emulates least-cost pig feeding and used it to assess the impact of the aforementioned factors on farmers’ maximum revenue and profit potential when pigs are sold to local butchers in western Kenya. When considered as independent factors influencing feed costs to grow a pig to a market weight of 30 kg, variation in ADG, opportunity cost of feed, and weaning season resulted in feed cost differences of up to 982, 947, and 379 Kenyan shillings (KES), respectively. The variation in revenues attributable to butcher or butcher negotiation and seasonal variance of butcher prices for a 30 kg pig was 744 and 225 KES, respectively. Feed items most commonly chosen for least-cost feed rations were small dried fish, cooked ground maize, whole maize, millet, cassava foliage, sweet potato vines, bone meal, avocado, and mango. Smallholder farmers who can feed pigs to reach higher ADG have lower opportunity costs of feeds and/or who effectively bargain with butchers can benefit from semi-intensive pig rearing. Farmers without access to at least some zero-cost feeds and farmers with opportunity costs of feeds exceeding 50 % of the market price will not earn positive returns from semi-intensive pig rearing.     

Characteristics of the smallholder free-range pig production system in western Kenya

Free-range pig farming is common amongst the small-scale farmers in western Kenya. In order to determine the characteristics of this type of production system, a cross-sectional questionnaire survey on farm characteristics and management was collected from 182 farmers in Busia District. The mean farm size was one acre, while the mean number of pigs per farm was 3.6. Pigs were mainly kept as a source of income (98%) and majority were of cross breed variety (64%). The production systems included farrow to weaner (12%), porker to finisher (36%), and mixed (46%). Sixty five percent (65%) of the pigs were tethered and housing was not provided in 61% of the farms. Most of the feeds were sourced locally. Lack of castration and delayed weaning of pigs was observed on 49% and 30% of the farms, respectively. The main production constraints included pig diseases (81%) and high cost or lack of feed (81%). Haematopinus suis infestations and worm infections were considered to be the most important diseases by 71% and 55% of the farmers, respectively. Farmers had moderate knowledge on parasitic disease diagnosis with 31% and 62% not having a history of either deworming or spraying pigs with acaricides, respectively. Marketing constraints were common amongst the farmers and included poor prices and inadequate market information. In conclusion, the production system was characterized as low-input with an income objective. Future research and development approaches should focus on the integration of free-range farmers into the country’s market chains through access to extension services.     

抽样调查北京地区猪场饲料及饲料原料玉米赤霉烯酮污染状况

本研究采用免疫亲和柱高效液相色谱法测定了北京地区猪场饲料原料及全价饲料中玉米赤霉烯酮（ＺＥＮ）的含量,以了解北京地区饲料中 ＺＥＮ的污染情况。试验抽样采集北京市昌平区、大兴区、延庆区、平谷区、顺义区 ５个区县 １５个猪场 １３１份饲料样［５５份玉米、豆粕、麸皮、干酒糟及其可溶物（ＤＤＧＳ）原料,７６份猪全价饲料］进行 ＺＥＮ含量的测定。结果表明：玉米、豆粕、麸皮、ＤＤＧＳ和全价饲料中 ＺＥＮ的检出率分别为 １００．００％、５４．４５％、１００．００％、１００．００％和 ５８．８８％,超标率分别为 ０．００％、０．００％、０．００％、４１．１８％和 ０．００％,平均含量分别为 １０９．０８、９．１９、１４．９２、８８２．６８和 ５８．８８μｇ／ｋｇ。结果提示,不同饲料原料中 ＺＥＮ含量存在差异,ＤＤＧＳ中 ＺＥＮ平均含量超标,猪全价饲料及玉米、豆粕等饲料原料中 ＺＥＮ平均含量均未超标。     

Opportunities and challenges for smallholder pig production systems in a mountainous region of Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, China

China’s small-scale pig keepers are the largest community of pork producers worldwide. About 56 % of the world's pigs originate from such systems, each producing 2–5 head per year. This study analyzes pig smallholders in Xishuangbanna, a prefecture of Yunnan Province. Categorical principal component analysis and two-step cluster analysis were used to identify three main production systems: livestock-corn-based (LB; 41 %), rubber based (RB; 39 %), and pig based (PB; 20 %) systems. RB farms earn high income from rubber and fatten cross-bred pigs, often using purchased feeds. PB farms own similar-sized rubber plantations and raise pigs, with fodder mainly being cultivated and collected in the forest. LB farms grow corn, rice, and tea while also raising pigs, fed with collected and cultivated fodder as well. About one third of pigs were marketed (LB, 20 %; RB, 42 %; PB, 25 %), and local pig meat is highly appreciated in the nearby town. High mortality, low reproductive performance, and widespread malnourishment are the systems' main constraints. Basic training in hygiene and reproduction management could significantly increase production; most effective measures would be counterbalancing seasonal malnourishment and exploration of locally available protein feeds. Through support by external expertise, farmers could more effectively trade their pigs at lucrative town markets.     

抽样调查北京地区猪场饲料及饲料原料赭曲霉毒素A污染状况

本研究旨在采用免疫亲和柱高效液相色谱法测定北京地区猪场饲料及饲料原料中赭曲霉毒素A(OTA)的含量,以了解北京地区饲料中OTA污染情况。试验抽样采集北京市昌平区、大兴区、延庆区、平谷区、顺义区5个区县15个猪场131份饲料样[玉米14份、豆粕11份、麸皮13份、干酒糟及其可溶物(DDGS)17份、猪全价配合饲料76份]进行OTA含量的测定。结果表明:玉米、豆粕、麸皮和DDGS中OTA的检出率分别为92.86%、63.64%、76.92%和100.00%,平均含量分别为22.12、10.81、7.78和22.46μg/kg,仅发现玉米中OTA含量超标,超标率为7.14%。乳猪料、仔猪料、中猪料、大猪料、怀孕母猪料和哺乳母猪料中OTA的检出率分别为100.00%、85.70%、85.70%、94.44%、90.00%和100.00%,平均含量分别为4.39、15.74、11.66、13.07、47.75和15.40μg/kg,仅发现怀孕母猪料中OTA含量超标,超标率为20.00%,其他配合饲料中OTA含量均较低。综上所述,不同饲料或饲料原料中OTA含量存在差异,本调研结果发现玉米和怀孕母猪料中OTA含量部分超标,其他猪全价配合饲料及饲料原料中OTA含量均未超标。     

Integrated resource-driven pig production systems in a mountainous area of Northeast India: production practices and pig performance

Data on pig production system was derived through structured household interviews from a total number of 320 rural households and performance of pigs was assessed. Results revealed that the pig production system represented mixed farming based mainly on the common property resources. Majority of the pigs were reared in intensive system and fed with home made cooked feed (kitchen waste and locally available plants). The body weight of crossbred, Burmese and local pigs were 67, 65.4 and 45.6 kg, respectively at 12 months of age with average daily body weight of 184, 179 and 125 g, respectively. The overall mortality among the pigs was 17.96%. The major causes of mortality in pigs were Swine fever, Swine erysipelas, digestive disorders, nephritis and respiratory disorders. The body weight gain in pigs subjected to deworming and mineral mixture supplementation (218 g/day) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the control group (178 g/day). The input output ratio was 1:1.7 for both crossbred and Burmese pigs, while the corresponding ratio for local pigs was 1:1.2. It is inferred that the smallholder resource driven pig production system is economically viable and sustainable at household level and there is enough scope to improve the smallholder resource driven pig production system.     

用回-直肠吻合法测定猪饲料氨基酸消化率研究

本试验选用4头经回-直肠吻合手术阉公猪(体重23.5±1.8kg)测定了玉米、次粉、麦麸、乳清粉、血浆蛋白粉、鱼粉、豆粕、菜籽粕、棉籽粕、玉米蛋白粉、花生粕等11种猪饲料氨基酸表观消化率和真消化率.结果表明,乳清粉、鱼粉蛋白氨基酸真消化率最高,菜籽粕、棉籽粕、花生粕较低,玉米蛋白粉最低.     

日粮中添加发酵饲料对育肥猪养分消化率及肠道菌群的影响

为研究日粮中添加不同水平的发酵饲料对育肥猪养分消化率及肠道菌群的影响,试验选用560头杜×长×大三元育肥猪[(75.37±2.65)kg],根据体重、性别随机分为7组,每组5个重复,每个重复16头,对照组饲喂育肥猪日粮,试验组分别在育肥猪日粮中添加5%或10%的发酵饲料A、B、C,饲喂21 d后每组选5头育肥猪肛门采集新鲜粪便测定肠道菌群多样性;并在饲喂第29天和第30天,各组每个重复连续收集粪便混合后测定养分消化率。结果表明:日粮中添加发酵饲料对育肥猪粗蛋白质、能量和干物质的消化率没有显著影响(P>0.05),相比对照组,饲喂发酵饲料组的粗蛋白质消化率有所提高(最高组提高2.9%);同时肠道菌群中乳杆菌属丰度有所增加,表明在日粮中添加一定比例的发酵饲料可以改善育肥猪养分消化率和肠道健康。     

Evaluation of the feeding value of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dichrostachys cinerea</Emphasis> pods for fattening pigs in Cuba

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. is a tropical leguminous shrub widely regarded as an invasive species in Cuba, after having invaded a significant proportion of its arable land during the past decades. Concurrently, smallholder pig producers are highly constrained by the scarcity of protein feeds. This study aimed to assess the feeding value of D. cinerea pod meal (DCPM) as an alternative protein supplement for pigs in Cuban smallholder production systems. An on-farm feeding trial was carried out with three groups (N = 10) of growing-fattening pigs over 60 days, where DCPM replaced 0, 15, and 30% in DM of a dietary commercial concentrate. Then, in an in vivo digestibility trial with eight growing pigs, apparent digestibilities of DCPM were determined for dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and crude protein (CP). Finally, in vitro digestibilities for OM (fecal and ileal) and CP (ileal) were determined. In the feeding trial, pig body weight gains were not affected by increased dietary substitution levels of concentrate for DCPM. Blood parameters, with a few exceptions, did not show significant differences among groups. Values for in vivo OM and CP digestibilities were 40.81 and 50.26%, and substantially higher than in vitro values. In conclusion, our results showed that at least 30% of DM in commercial concentrate could be substituted by DCPM without affecting pig growth performances under Cuban smallholder conditions. The low digestibility of DCPM is, however, not acceptable for intensive pig production systems. In vitro enzyme digestibility methods developed for commercial pig feeds are not suitable for DCPM without further calibration.     

基于祖源分析的猪遗传成分鉴定

解析不同品牌猪肉的遗传成分对商业品牌的保护，防伪溯源及中国地方猪种的改良和开发具有重要参考价值。从市场上选取4种不同来源的猪肌肉组织通过全基因组重测序，并结合已发表的59头猪的数据，对其祖先成分进行分析，推测它们祖先可能的来源及其各祖先成分的含量。利用线粒体基因组数据判断4头猪的母系来源，揭示可能的母系来源。59头参考个体包含12个品种，分别是杜洛克猪、长白猪、大白猪、皮特兰猪、二花脸猪、金华猪、姜曲海猪、梅山猪、巴马香猪、陆川猪、五指山猪和香猪。将12个品种划分为商品猪、中国东部猪和中国南方猪。研究中，利用ADMIXTURE和RFMix软件分别对4头测试个体进行祖先成分的评估。设定4头测试个体的祖先群体为3类时，发现其中一头含有54.8%的商品猪成分和45.2%的中国南方猪成分，另一头含有81.3%的商品猪成分，而剩下的两头含有的商品猪成分占到97.0%以上。设定祖先群体为12类时，发现其中一头含有64.8%的杜洛克猪成分和35.2%的陆川猪成分；另一头含有的祖先成分比较复杂，长白猪的含量为22.5%，大白猪的含量为27.6%，五指山猪的含量为8.6%，二花脸猪的含量为5.5%，梅山猪、姜曲海猪和巴马香猪的含量均在1.2%左右；而剩余两头猪的祖先成分主要是杜洛克猪、长白猪、大白猪和皮特兰猪。另外，线粒体的祖源判断提示其中一头猪的母系来源可能是陆川猪或相近地方品种的母猪。通过常用的祖源分析方法对4头猪进行祖先血统成分的估计，发现4头猪的遗传成分各不相同，并能清晰地知道不同个体中祖先成分及占比。该研究结果证明通过祖源分析的方法可以估算每个测试个体的遗传成分来源。使用祖源成分作为遗传特征，可为品牌猪肉的鉴定和品牌保护提供重要的遗传学参考，也可以为中国地方猪品种的保护、开发提供指导和参考。     

Estimation of nitrogen and phosphorus flows in livestock production in Dianchi Lake basin,China

We assessed the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) flows in intensified livestock production systems by investigating nutrient budgets and cycling in the basin of Dianchi Lake, one of the most eutrophic lakes in China. We conducted field surveys based on feed samplings and interviews of livestock farmers. The N and P in local and external feeds, animal body retentions, animal products and excretions were calculated at the individual level for dairy cattle, fattening pigs, breeding sows, broilers and laying hens. The N and P flows in the total livestock production system in the area were estimated by multiplying the individual N and P budgets by the number of animals. For the dairy and fattening pig productions, N and P supplied from local crops or by‐products accounted for large parts of the inputs. For the other livestock categories, most of the N and P inputs depended on external resources. The N and P outputs through animal manure into the cropland were 287 and 66 kg/ha/year, respectively, which were higher than the N and P inputs into the livestock production systems from the cropland. The N and P loads from manure should be reduced for the establishment of sustainable agricultural production systems.     

Estimation of potassium and magnesium flows in animal production in Dianchi Lake basin,China

The objectives of this study were to estimate and evaluate potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) budgets and flows of animal production in the basin of Dianchi Lake, China. Feed sampling and farmer interviews were conducted in field surveys. The supplies of K and Mg from local and external feeds and the retention, production and excretion of animals were calculated individually for dairy cows, fattening pigs, breeding sows, and broilers and laying hens. The K and Mg flows on a regional level were estimated using the individual budgets. At the individual level, in dairy cattle, the K and Mg supplied from local feeds accounted for large parts of the total nutrient intakes, whereas in the other animal categories most of the K and Mg in the feeds depended on external resources. Our findings also suggested that excessive Mg intake resulted in high Mg excretion and low use efficiency in dairy cattle and fattening pigs. At the regional level, the K and Mg amounts of manure produced and applied in the area (K: 339 and Mg: 143 t/year) exceeded those used as local feeds. Our results imply the animal production potentially increased the K and Mg loads in the regional agriculture system.     

Average daily gain of local pigs on rural and peri-urban smallholder farms in two districts of Western Kenya

The objective of this study was to determine the average daily gain (ADG) of pigs on rural and peri-urban smallholder farms in two districts of Western Kenya, in order to establish a baseline to measure the impact of future management interventions. Average daily gain (kilograms per day) for 664 pigs weighed one, two or three times and the proportion of local and crossbreed pigs was determined. Assuming a uniform birth weight of 1 kg, ADG did not differ between pigs weighed once or twice. Overall, ADG was higher in peri-urban pigs (0.15?±?0.058 kg/day) than rural pigs (0.11?±?0.047 kg/day). Pigs at 1 to 2 months had a higher ADG than those at 3 months or 10 to 12 months and ADG was higher in crossbreed than local pigs. Over the two districts, the ADG was low (0.13?±?0.002 kg/day). Most (87.2 %) pigs were of local breed. Low ADG may be due to malnourishment, high maintenance energy expenditure, high parasite prevalence, disease, and/or low genetic potential. This low ADG of pigs raised on smallholder farms in Western Kenya indicates a high potential for improvement. The growth rate of pigs in Western Kenya must be improved using locally available feedstuffs to make efficient use of resources, promote sustainable smallholder pig production, and improve the livelihood of smallholder farmers.     

Risk factors associated with occurrence of nematodes in free range pigs in Busia District,Kenya

Nematode infections are a serious constraint to pig production, especially where free range pig keeping is practiced. This study investigated the epidemiology of nematodes in free range pigs in Busia District, Kenya. Three hundred and six pigs from 135 farms were sampled for faeces that were analysed for nematode eggs per gram (EPG) of faeces using the McMaster technique. The nematode eggs were also identified to genus and species based on morphology. A questionnaire on risk factors was also administered to the pig owners. The overall prevalence and mean nematode EPG were 84.2% and 2,355, respectively. The nematode eggs were identified as those belonging to Oesophagostomum spp. (75%), Strongyloides ransomi (37%), Ascaris suum (18%), Metastrongylus spp. (11%), Trichuris suis (7%) and Physocephalus sexalatus (3%). The prevalence of nematodes was positively correlated (p < 0.05) with the amount of rainfall in the division of the pigs' origin (all nematodes except S. ransomi). The prevalence of nematodes was also associated with the age of the pigs. A lower burden of nematodes was associated (p < 0.05) with a history of deworming (A. suum) and the provision of night housing (S. ransomi and Metastrongylus spp.). In conclusion, this study has provided information on nematode infections and the associated risk factors for free range pigs in Busia District, which can be used when implementing integrated control measures.     

Examination of meat components in commercial dog and cat feed by using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphisms (PCR-RFLPs) technique

It has been shown that certain slow neurological diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (also known as "mad cow" disease) could be transmitted through contaminated food intake by animals; therefore, the examination of meat components in commercial feeds is important for the control of the disease in public health. The combination of polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphisms (PCR-RFLPs) technique was applied to examine the meat components in dog and cat commercial feeds. The partial nucleotide sequence (359 bp) of animal mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb, CYT) gene was amplified by PCR and then digested with restriction enzyme Alu I or Mbo I. In this work, eight brands of commercial dog and cat feeds available in Taiwan were examined. All brands of dog feeds that were tested contained meat from four different animals (cattle, pig, goat and chicken). In cat feeds, the chicken meat was found in five out of eight brands.     

猪饲料消化能值的离体测定方法及其生物学试验根据

<正> 设计猪的饲料配方时消化能值是关键性指标之一。它直接关系到饲养标准的制定,饲料本身的合理利用和有关微量成分及饲料添加剂预配量的确定。但是沿用的全收粪——套算消化试验方法(下称常法),不仅工作量大,产生误差的几率多,而且受试验动物条件的限制,很难满足发展中的饲料工业提出的快进快出的要求。 猪饲料消化能值的测定方法的研究大体经过三个阶段。从本世纪初到中叶一直采用常法。由于耗时费力,以后不少学者改用以饲料中所含稳定物质如SiO_2,木质素,色母(Chromogen)以及酸不溶灰分AIA(Acid Insoluble Ash)为内指示剂;或以Cr_2O_3,PEG(Polyethylene glycol聚乙二醇类)为外指示剂的比例推算法。但不论是     

Alternative prediction methods of protein and energy evaluation of pig feeds

Precise knowledge of the actual nutritional value of individual feedstuffs and complete diets for pigs is important for efficient livestock production. Methods of assessment of protein and energy values in pig feeds have been briefly described. In vivo determination of protein and energy values of feeds in pigs are time-consuming,expensive and very often require the use of surgically-modified animals. There is a need for more simple, rapid,inexpensive and reproducible methods for routine feed evaluation. Protein and energy values of pig feeds can be estimated using the following alternative methods: 1) prediction equations based on chemical composition; 2)animal models as rats, cockerels and growing pigs for adult animals; 3) rapid methods, such as the mobile nylon bag technique and in vitro methods. Alternative methods developed for predicting the total tract and ileal digestibility of nutrients including amino acids in feedstuffs and diets for pigs have been reviewed. This article focuses on two in vitro methods that can be used for the routine evaluation of amino acid ileal digestibility and energy value of pig feeds and on factors affecting digestibility determined in vivo in pigs and by alternative methods. Validation of alternative methods has been carried out by comparing the results obtained using these methods with those acquired in vivo in pigs. In conclusion, energy and protein values of pig feeds may be estimated with satisfactory precision in rats and by the two-or three-step in vitro methods providing equations for the calculation of standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids and metabolizable energy content. The use of alternative methods of feed evaluation is an important way for reduction of stressful animal experiments.     

A survey of manure management on pig farms in Northern Vietnam

Animal manure can provide nutrients for crop and fish production and input for biogas production but, if managed inappropriately, can also have a negative impact on the environment. The objective of this survey was to provide information about pig production and manure management practices in the Northern part of Vietnam in order to identify and prioritize research needs for future improvements in pig manure management. A survey was conducted by in-depth interviews on 54 pig farms in two Northern Vietnamese provinces, Thai Binh and Bac Giang. In addition to the survey, also key informant responses were obtained in the two provinces to help identify problems with existing manure management. The survey showed that large-scale pig producers (> 100 fatteners or 20 sows) had more pigs per hectare than medium-scale (19–99 fatteners, 5–19 sows) or small-scale (< 19 fatteners, < 5 sows) producers. Biogas was produced from 43% of the total manure produced on all surveyed farms, and was used for cooking. The proportion of total manure applied to crops was only 5% in Thai Binh and 35% in Bac Giang. Large-scale producers tended to operate smaller fishponds, and medium-scale farms operated larger ones. The farmers were of the opinion that fish in ponds fertilized with pig manure grew significantly faster than did fish in ponds supplied with other feed or types of fertilizer. Twenty percent of pig producers reported that they raised pigs just to provide manure to feed their pond fish. A large proportion (19%) of the total manure produced was discharged into public sewage systems, rivers and lakes. Of the 54 householders interviewed, 46 believed that animal manure caused serious damage to the environment. Farmers interviewed had little or no expertise in handling liquid manure, composting solid manure, or reducing contamination by means of microbial reduction of pollutants during manure management. In general, specialized pig production is seen as a commercial operation, while manure management remains non-commercial. The survey implied that more information to farmers, as well as stronger regulation of manure management, is needed in Vietnam.