Increased porcine circovirus type 2 replication in porcine leukocytes in vitro and in vivo by concanavalin A stimulation

Previously, it was shown that modulation of the immune system enhances porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) replication in pigs. In the present study, the effect of the mitogen concanavalin A (ConA) on PCV2 replication was investigated. Since ConA induces T-lymphocyte activation and initiates the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), a cytokine that enhances PCV2 replication in porcine epithelial and monocytic cell lines in vitro, it was examined if the effects observed with ConA were mediated by IFN-gamma. In an in vitro study, ConA but not IFN-gamma enhanced PCV2 replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Up to 2.08% and 0.96% of PBMC were antigen positive for PCV2 strains 1121 and Stoon-1010, respectively, and a low virus production was observed. PCV2-infected PBMC were identified as CD4(+) (40%), CD8(+) (54%) and IgM(+) (11%). In a subsequent in vivo study, caesarean-derived colostrum-deprived piglets were injected with ConA or IFN-gamma 12h before inoculation and every 3 days for 9 days after inoculation with strain 1121. PCV2 was isolated from inguinal lymph node biopsies from 10 days post-inoculation (dpi) in ConA-treated pigs and from 15dpi in non-treated and IFN-gamma-treated pigs. ConA increased PCV2 replication levels, but disease was not observed. Half of the ConA-treated and IFN-gamma-treated pigs showed a delayed humoral immune response, but this delay did not result in increased PCV2 replication in these pigs. These experiments demonstrated that ConA enhances PCV2 replication in PBMC in vitro and in lymphoid tissues in vivo.     

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide induces porcine circovirus type 2 replication in swine alveolar macrophages

Monocyte/macrophage lineage cells are major target cells of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). From tissues of field pigs suffering from postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), both intracytoplasmic and intranuclear PCV2 signals, including antigens and nucleic acid, were easily detected in the monocyte/macrophage lineage cells. However, there was a high incidence of intracytoplasmic PCV2-positive signals, but lack of intranuclear signals and PCV2 replication in these cells in vitro. Concurrent infection with bacteria and activation of immune system are suggested to promote viral replication. In this study, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) were used to stimulate PCV2-inoculated alveolar macrophages (AMs). A decrease in intracytoplasmic but increase in intranuclear PCV2-positive signals, including antigens and nucleic acid, were detected in LPS-treated PCV2-inoculated AMs, but not in PMA-treated cells. Additionally, the replication product corresponding to PCV2 spliced major capsid protein (Cap) mRNA and a significant elevation in PCV2 titer were demonstrated in the LPS-treated PCV2-inoculated AMs. The results imply that Gram-negative bacterial co-infection in PCV2-infected pigs may be an important factor in promoting PCV2 replication and contributing, at least partially, to the full development of PMWS.     

Characterization of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infection in swine lymphocytes using mitogen-stimulated peripheral blood lymphocytes from healthy PCV2-carrier pigs

Information regarding the susceptibility of swine lymphocytes to PCV2 is rather limited. To further explore and characterize the PCV2 infection in swine lymphocytes, an in vitro model using concanavalin A (Con A)-stimulated peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) obtained from clinically healthy PCV2-carrier pigs was introduced. It was found that the PCV2 antigen-containing rate was below 2% in PBLs from healthy PCV2-free pigs following treated simultaneously with Con A and PCV2. However, significantly higher PCV2 antigen- and nucleic acid-containing rates could be seen in Con A-stimulated PBLs from clinically healthy PCV2-carrier pigs. Prior to Con A treatment, both of the PCV2 antigen- and nucleic acid-containing rates in PBLs from healthy PCV2-carrier pigs were less than 1%; however, they reached 22.1+/-5.7% by flow cytometry and 27.1+/-6.5% by in situ hybridization, respectively, at 4-day post-incubation with Con A. Phenotyping of PCV2 antigen-containing cells revealed that PCV2-positive cells could be detected in both T and B lymphocyte populations within which IgM-positive B lymphocytes appeared to have a relatively higher positive rate. The Con A-stimulated PBLs also displayed a significantly higher viral load by the measurement of either PCV2 DNA copy number or viral titer when compared with the non-treated PBLs from healthy PCV2-carrier pigs. The results indicate that PBLs, especially IgM-bearing B lymphocytes, are indeed susceptible to PCV2 infection and PCV2 is capable of replicating in dividing lymphocytes. This activation-induced replication may explain in part the pathogenesis of lymphoid depletion in PMWS-affected pigs.     

In vitro studies on the infection and replication of porcine circovirus type 2 in cells of the porcine immune system

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) nucleic acid and/or antigens are consistently observed in cells of monocytic morphology in lesions of pigs affected by post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). In this study, PCV2 antigen was detected in the cytoplasm of monocytes, pulmonary macrophages (PMs) and monocyte-derived macrophages exposed to the virus in vitro, by immunofluorescence analysis (IFA) and the phenotype of these cells confirmed by detection of monocytic cell surface markers using flow cytometry. Viral antigen was not observed in lymphocytic cells. Replication of the virus in PMs was investigated further by comparison to that observed in the continuous pig kidney cell line (PK15A) using quantitative virus titration, quantitative PCR and by the detection of double stranded DNA intermediates of viral replication by Southern blotting analyses. Although increases in viral DNA and levels of infectious virus progeny and the presence of replicative intermediates, indicative of viral replication, were observed in PK15A cells, no such changes were observed in PMs in spite of the fact that infectious virus, viral antigen and viral DNA persisted in the cells for at least the duration of the experiment. These results suggest that in vivo, monocytic cells may not represent the primary target for PCV2 replication.     

猪外周血树突状细胞的体外培养及鉴定

从猪外周血中分离获得单核细胞,分别加入150μg/L pGM-CSF和100U/mL pIL-4,体外培养6d后诱导出大量树突状细胞（Dendrictic cell,DC）,通过显微镜观察,可见其细胞表面具有典型的树突状突起,呈毛刺状。在培养末期加入TNF-α后可促进DC进一步成熟,其表面高水平表达MHCⅡ、CD80/86和CD16。猪DC的体外获得将为进一步研究许多病毒性疾病的致病机理奠定的基础。     

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) induces cell proliferation,fusion, and chemokine expression in swine monocytic cells in vitro

Granulomatous lymphadenitis is one of the pathognomonic lesions in post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS)-affected pigs. This unique lesion has not been reported in direct association with viral infection in pigs. The objective of the present study was to evaluate whether porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) alone is able to induce functional modulation in porcine monocytic cells in vitro to elucidate its possible role in the development of granulomatous inflammation. It was found that the proliferation activity of blood monocytes (Mo) and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) was significantly enhanced by PCV2. During monocyte-macrophage differentiation, the PCV2 antigen-containing rate and formation of multinucleated giant cells (MGC) were significantly increased in MDM when compared to those in Mo. The MDM-derived MGC displayed a significantly higher PCV2 antigen-containing rate than did the mono-nucleated MDM. Supernatants from PCV2-inoculated MDM at 24 h post-inoculation induced an increased tendency of chemotactic activity for blood Mo. At the same inoculation time period, levels of mRNA expression of the monocytic chemokines, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and macrophage inflammatory protein-1, also significantly increased in PCV2-inoculated MDM. The results suggest that PCV2 alone may induce cell proliferation, fusion, and chemokine expression in swine monocytic cells. Thus, PCV2 itself may play a significant role in the induction of granulomatous inflammation in PMWS-affected pigs.     

猪圆环病毒病Ⅱ型的诊断与防治

某地村民宋某自养商品猪126头,体重在30～40kg。从2004年7月10日开始陆续发病,其主要特征为猪的体质下降,消瘦,体温升高,出血、呼吸困难,贫血,个别猪出现咳嗽,腹泻,黄疸等,临床用药效果甚微。我们依据流行病学、临床表现、病理变化以及实验室诊断,综合诊断为猪圆环病毒病。1发病情况该批猪是5月份从外地购入,一周后分别进行了猪瘟、仔猪副伤寒、猪肺疫、猪丹毒、猪水肿病以及口蹄疫病的免疫接种。到7月10日前没有发生任何疫病,吃食、精神均正常。7月10日后陆续发病,到7月22日发病36头,死亡7头,在饲养环节中未发现异常。2临床表现病初体温升…     

Porcine circovirus type 2 decreases the infection and replication of attenuated classical swine fever virus in porcine alveolar macrophages

Recently, it has been noted that porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infection adversely affects the protective efficacy of Lapinized Philippines Coronel (LPC) vaccine, an attenuated strain of classical swine fever virus (CSFV), in pigs. In order to investigate the possible mechanisms of the PCV2-derived interference, an in vitro model was established to study the interaction of LPC virus (LPCV) and PCV2 in porcine alveolar macrophages (AMs). The results showed that PCV2 reduced the LPCV infection in AMs and the levels of PCV2-derived interference were dose-dependent. The PCV2-derived interference also reduced the replication level of LPCV in AMs. The full-length PCV2 DNA and its fragment DNA C9 CpG-ODN were involved in the reduction of LPCV infection in AMs, whereas UV-inactivated PCV2 was not. In addition, a moderate negative correlation between the LPCV antigen-containing rate and IFN-γ production was observed, and had a dose-dependent trend with the level of PCV2-inoculation. The results of the present study may partially explain how PCV2 infection interferes with the efficacy of LPC vaccine.     

猪树突状细胞的体外培养及其主要免疫生物学特性研究

为建立体外诱导、培养猪外周血单核细胞来源树突状细胞(DC)的方法,并对其进行免疫生物学特性鉴定,本实验从猪外周血无菌分离单核细胞—DC前体细胞,以猪源重组GM-CSF和IL-4联合诱导培养,从形态学、表型及功能方面对其进行检测。结果证实,经体外诱导培养的猪DC具有典型的树突状形态;培养6d的未成熟DC表面SLA-II-DR、CD1、CD172a表达的阳性率分别为61.50%、83.10%和24.90%;培养8d的成熟DC表面SLA-II-DR、CD1、CD172a表达的阳性率分别为71.70%、50.10%和19.30%;培养的DC具有吞噬异物的功能,以及刺激同种异体淋巴细胞增殖的能力。本文首次在国内成功地建立了体外培养猪外周血单核细胞来源DC的方法,为进一步研究DC在猪传染性疾病致病机制中的作用奠定了基础。     

Seroprevalence of porcine circovirus type 2 in swine populations in Canada and Costa Rica

Porcine circovirus (PCV) was recently divided into 2 antigenically distinct types that differ (65% amino acid identity) in the protein encoded by open reading frame 2 (ORF2). Porcine circovirus 1 is apparently non-pathogenic and, in contrast, PCV2 is associated with porcine multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). Our objective was to determine the extent of exposure of normal pigs in Canada and Costa Rica to PCV2. Recombinant DNA techniques were used to produce an antigen from ORF2 of PCV2 that was suitable for the detection of antibody in swine sera. The presence of PCV2 nucleotide sequences was detected using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques. Using these tests, specific antibody and nucleotide sequences were demonstrated in sera from a cohort of pigs during a PMWS outbreak. Antibody was detected in normal, healthy hogs slaughtered in Canada (82.4% of 386) and in Costa Rica (14.6% of 322). This is the first report indicating the presence of PCV2 in Latin America. More than 50% of these sera also contained PCV2 nucleotide sequence. Although these hogs were healthy when slaughtered, they were infected with PCV2 and may have previously been ill. The widespread occurrence of PCV2 in swine suggests that this virus is adapted to replication in porcine tissue.     

Immunopathological effects of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) on swine alveolar macrophages by in vitro inoculation

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the primary causative agent of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), a multifactorial disease, in pigs. Monocyte/macrophage lineage cells, including alveolar macrophages (AMs), are the major target cells for PCV2. Swine AMs are essential for the pulmonary defense system against various pathogens. Concurrent infection of lung with opportunistic pathogens in pigs suffered from PMWS is speculated as a feature of immunosuppression. The present study was conducted to characterize the effects of PCV2 inoculation on swine AMs in the in vitro system. The parameters selected for evaluation included PCV2 antigen- and nucleic acid-containing rate, viability, TUNEL-positive rate, phagocytosis, microbicidal capability, and capacity for production of reactive oxygen species (superoxide anion, O₂⁻, and hydrogen peroxide, H₂O₂), cytokines, and chemokines. High intracytoplasmic PCV2 antigen- and nucleic acid-containing rate, absence of intranuclear signals for PCV2 antigen and nucleic acid, and lack of noticeable cell death were seen in PCV2-inoculated AMs. The PCV2-inoculated AMs displayed a transient as well as persistent reduction in the up-take and destruction of Candida albicans, respectively, accompanied by decrease in the production of O₂⁻ and H₂O₂. In PCV2-inoculated AMs, the levels of tumor necrosis- (TNF-) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) were significantly increased; the mRNA expression levels of alveolar macrophage-derived neutrophil chemotactic factors-II (AMCF-II), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), and IL-8 were strongly up-regulated. The reduced phagocytosis and microbicidal capability in conjunction with decreased production of reactive oxygen species in PCV2-inoculated AMs suggest that PCV2-containing AMs may favor the survival and spread of PCV2. It is speculated that the functional alterations observed in PCV2-containing AMs may be potentially harmful to the lung tissue and local pulmonary defense system, especially in those PCV2-infected pigs conditioned by various PMWS development-dependent co-factors.     

Epidemiologic assessment of porcine circovirus type 2 coinfection with other pathogens in swine

OBJECTIVE: To identify important pathogens and characterize their serologic and pathologic effects in porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2)-infected pigs in relation to pig age and type of swine production system. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. ANIMALS: 583 conventionally reared pigs. PROCEDURES: 3- (n = 157), 9- (149), 16- (152), and 24-week-old (125) pigs from 41 different 1-, 2-, and 3-site production systems (5 pigs/age group/farm) were euthanized and necropsied. Pigs with and without PCV2 infection were identified (via PCR assay); infection with and serologic responses to other pathogens and pathologic changes in various tissues (including lungs) were assessed. Logistic regression models were constructed for effects overall and within each age group and type of production system. RESULTS: Compared with PCV2-negative pigs, PCV2-positive pigs were more likely to have swine influenza virus (SIV) type A and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae infections and sample-to-positive (S:P) ratios for SIV H1N1 from 0.50 to 0.99; also, PCV2-positive pigs had higher serum anti-porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) antibody titers and more severe lung tissue damage. Infection with SIV (but lower SIV H1N1 S:P ratio) was more likely in 3-week-old PCV2-positive pigs and evidence of systemic disease was greater in 16-week-old PCV2-positive pigs than in their PCV2-negative counterparts. By site type, associations of coinfections and disease effects between PCV2-positive and -negative pigs were greatest in 3-site production systems. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In PCV2-positive pigs, coinfections with SIV, M. hyopneumoniae, and PRRSV are important, having the greatest effect in the early to late nursery phase and in 3-site production systems.     

猪生殖与呼吸综合征病毒和猪圆环病毒2型共感染对猪外周血天然免疫细胞含量的影响

将猪生殖与呼吸综合征病毒（PRRSV）和猪圆环病毒2型（PCV2）单感染和共感染的6周龄仔猪，于感染前和感染后第3、7和10d，采用血常规法、SWC3a单色流式细胞术以及CD3／CD4／CD8三色流式细胞术分析了感染猪外周血中白细胞、粒细胞、单核细胞、NK细胞、弦T细胞的含量。结果，感染后第3d和第7d，PRRSV感染组、PCV2感染组以及PRRSV＋PCV2共感染组猪的白细胞、单核细胞、粒细胞、NK细胞、弦T细胞总数显著下降，并且共感染组比单感染组下降更加严重。结果表明，PRRSV＋PCV2共感染对仔猪外周血天然免疫细胞的影响具有协同效应，意味著在感染旱期可导致更加严重的先天免疫抑制。     

PK-15细胞微载体悬浮培养及PCV2增殖工艺研究

研究表明,PCV2仅在PK15等少数哺乳动物细胞上增殖,但由于PCV2毒力弱,且不产生细胞病变,获得高滴度病毒难度较大~([1])。因此,PCV2的培养滴度高低已成为制约现有疫苗质量的关键瓶颈之一。为建立在生物反应器内微载体逐级放大培养PK-15细胞和增殖PCV2技术,本研究以德国Sartorius14 L生物反应器微载体悬浮培养PK-15细胞,对PK-15细胞初始接种密度、搅拌转速、微载体浓度、PCV2接毒时间、接毒剂量、收毒时间等工艺参数进行了摸索和优化~([2-3])。结果表明:3 g/L的微载体和60 r/min的搅拌转速下,采用0.5×10~6cells/mL的初始接种密度操作工艺可获得最佳PK-15细胞生长效能。细胞生长后6 h接毒,采用感染复数(MOI)为0.5的接毒比例,细胞接毒后在微载体上生长96 h可获得最高的PCV2增殖滴度10~(8.5)TCID_(50)/mL,利用该工艺,经过消化转移将PK-15细胞从14 L反应器放大至42 L反应器,微载体上细胞贴附均匀、生长旺盛,42 L反应器中培养72 h细胞密度可达39.0×10~5 cells/mL,病毒滴度10~(8.3)TCID_(50)/mL,应用生物反应器培养PCV2滴度较常规转瓶培养工艺提高了近10倍。进一步表明PCV2悬浮培养放大与接毒工艺稳定,为下一步实现工业级规模化生产奠定基础。     

Changes in peripheral blood leukocyte subpopulations in piglets co-infected experimentally with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and porcine circovirus type 2

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) are pathogens, which can significantly affect the swine industry worldwide. Field surveys suggest that simultaneous PRRSV and PCV2 infection is common in pigs. The objective of this study was to measure the changes in peripheral blood leukocyte subpopulations in piglets co-infected experimentally with PRRSV and PCV2, in order to analyze the synergistic influence of co-infection on the immune system. Changes in peripheral blood leukocyte subpopulations were systematically measured by flow cytometry (FCM). The levels of antibodies to PRRSV and PCV2 were detected by indirect Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA) and the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFA), respectively. Serum viral loads were measured using real-time PCR. The results showed that piglets co-infected with PRRSV and PCV2 exhibited slower generation and lower levels of antibodies to PRRSV and PCV2, and increased amounts and a prolonged presence of both PRRSV and PCV2 in serum, in comparison to the piglets infected with either virus alone. The major finding in our study was that the total and differential leukocyte counts, including white blood cells (WBCs), monocytes, granulocytes and lymphocytes (T, B and NK cells, as well as T-cell subpopulations), dramatically decreased early during co-infection with PRRSV and PCV2 for about two weeks, in contrast with animals singly infected with either PRRSV or PCV2. These results suggest that PRRSV and PCV2 co-infection results in a synergistic decrease in immune cells in the peripheral blood of piglets. These data contribute to the understanding of the immunosuppressive effects resulting from PRRSV and PCV2 co-infection in pigs.     

Experimental in utero inoculation of late-term swine fetuses with porcine circovirus type 2.

All 37 fetuses of 3 laparotomized pregnant sows at 86, 92, and 93 days of gestation were inoculated intramuscularly through the uterine wall with porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2). The sows were allowed to farrow, and blood and tissue samples were collected from their piglets before and after suckling colostrum. Thirteen fetuses from 2 sows at 90 and 103 days of gestation were used as controls. Of the 37 PCV-2 inoculated fetuses, 24 were grossly normal and 13 were mummified, stillborn, or weak-born at farrowing. Infection with PCV-2 was demonstrated in various tissues of grossly normal and abnormal fetuses by virus isolation, polymerase chain reaction, and immunohistochemical methods. Antibodies specific to PCV-2 were also detected from the sera or thoracic fluids of abnormal fetuses and unsuckled normal pigs. No evidence of PCV-2 infection was found in any control fetuses. The present results confirm previous findings that PCV-2 can infect late-term swine fetuses and may cause reproductive abnormalities.     

猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒和猪圆环病毒2型共感染对外周血单个核细胞凋亡细胞因子mRNA表达的影响

将猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒(Porcine reproductine and respiratory syndrome virus,PRRSV)和猪圆环病毒2型(Porcine circovirus type 2,PCV2)单感染和共感染6周龄健康仔猪,采用real-time PCR技术对外周血单个核细胞(PBMC)中的病毒栽量以及Fas、FasL、TNFR1和TNF-α等凋亡细胞因子mRNA表达水平进行检测,采用流式细胞术对PBMC的凋亡比率进行检测.结果显示,PRRSV/PCV2共感染组PBMC中PRRSV和PCV2载量、PB-MC凋亡比率均显著高于PRRSV感染组或PCV2感染组.所有病毒感染组的Fas、FasL、TNFR1和TNF-α的mRNA表达水平均显著上调,并且PRRSV/PCV2共感染组的表达水平均显著高于单感染组.结果表明,Fas/FasL、TNFR1/TNF-α表达水平的显著上调可能在PRRSV和PCV2协同诱导凋亡机制中扮演重要角色.     

Canine PHA-stimulated adherent cell enhance interferon-gamma production and proliferation of autologous peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Dendritic cells are specialized antigen‐presenting cells with immuno‐modulating functions that are attractive for clinical applications for cancer immunotherapy. This study examined immunostimulatory functions of phytohemagglutinin (PHA)‐stimulated adherent cells (PHA‐Ad cells) from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in dogs. PHA‐Ad cells enhanced interferon‐γ from autologous PBMC in vitro. PHA‐Ad cells also stimulated antigen‐independent proliferation of peripheral blood lymphocytes. These results suggest that PHA‐Ad cells from PBMC possess a stimulatory function to evoke anti‐tumour immunity and that they demonstrate potential for therapeutic applications in dogs.     

Genetic characterization and phylogenetic analysis of porcine circovirus type 2 strains present in Cuban swine herds

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the essential infectious agent of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) considered as one of the most important swine diseases worldwide. One of the main risk factors reported for the development of PMWS is the PCV2 genotype. The presence of PCV2 in Cuban swine herds has been reported recently. However, genetic information about these viruses is not available yet. Hence, the objectives of this study were to classify the Cuban porcine circovirus type 2 sequences as well as to investigate the genetic diversity and the putative origins of the virus circulating in Cuban swine herds. PCV2 Cuban sequences appeared to be close related when an analysis of the entire viral genome sequences was performed. The main variations on amino acid sequences of the capsid protein were found within the immunoreactive areas. All the Cuban PCV2 sequences analyzed belonged to genotype 1 and were located within the same Cluster (1A). Interestingly, five of them were clustered with high confident values with those described as the PCV2 variants associated with severe porcine circovirus diseases reported in Canada from the late 2004 to 2006. Pigs imported from this source appeared to be the most probable origin of the viruses circulating in Cuban swine herds currently. The fact that one sequence was not clustered with any other group of PCV2 within genotype 1 might suggest that different introductions of the agent in the country from unknown sources have occurred.