People with the least positive attitudes to green exercise derive most anxiolytic benefit from walking in green space

Green exercise elicits greater psychological benefits than urban exercise. We assessed the role of expectations, attitudes to green exercise, and trait anxiety on the anxiolytic effect of green exercise. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups to reduce order effects. One group completed a bout of green exercise followed by a bout of urban exercise and the second group vice-versa. Participants ( N = 22) completed 30-minutes of walking in both green and urban environments, with state anxiety assessed pre-, during- and post-activity. Measures of expectations, attitudes to green exercise, and trait anxiety were recorded at baseline. The findings suggest that green exercise does not elicit greater reductions in anxiety than urban exercise. However, a 30-minute walk in green space elicited greater improvements in state anxiety for participants with a lower positive attitude to green exercise(b = 5.14, 95% CI 0.48–9.80, p = 0.032). Attitudes to green exercise play a role in the anxiolytic effects of green exercise and should be considered when delivering green exercise interventions for mental health outcomes.     

Restoration and stress relief through physical activities in forests and parks

A field survey assessed the restorative effects of visiting an urban forest and a city park in Zurich, Switzerland. Respondents rated their headaches, level of stress, and how balanced they felt both prior to visiting the outdoor location and at the time of being interviewed. Suffering from headaches and stress decreased significantly, and feeling well-balanced increased significantly. The recovery ratio for stress was 87%, and the reduction in headaches was 52%, in terms of the possible improvements on five-point rating scales. With respect to feeling well-balanced, the observed changes amounted to 40% of the possible enhancement. Positive effects increased with length of visit, and individuals practising sports (e.g., jogging, biking, playing ball) showed significantly higher improvements than those engaged in less strenuous activities (e.g., taking a walk or relaxing). These findings support previous research on how exercise in green spaces promotes well-being and recovery from stress.     

Examination of the acute heart rate and salivary cortisol response to a single bout of walking in urban and green environments: A pilot study

BackgroundRegular physical activity can help prevent noncommunicable diseases, and improve mental health, quality of life, and well-being. ‘Green exercise’ is physical activity performed in natural settings such as parks and open green spaces. It is important to understand whether green exercise can provide additional physiological benefits over and above those of physical activity in urban environments. This pilot study compared the acute effects of a 30-min walk in a green environment to a 30-min walk in urban streets on adults’ heart rate and salivary cortisol.MethodsUsing a 2 × 2 randomised cross-over design, groups of 2–5 adults completed two experimental sessions involving a randomly assigned walk in an urban or a green environment. Heart rate and salivary cortisol were collected at regular intervals before, during, and in the 1.5 h following the walks and were compared within and between participants. Peak height, reactivity, area under the curve with respect to ground (AUCg) and area under the curve with respect to increase (AUCi), were also calculated for heart rate and cortisol and compared between walking conditions.ResultsThe sample included 20 participants (50 % female, mean =24.4 ± 4.0 years). Changes in heart rate (Condition × Time: F[5.8, 103.8]=1.67, p = 0.140) or cortisol (Condition × Time: F[2.6, 49.5]=0.81, p = 0.482) in response to walking were not statistically significantly different between the urban and green walking conditions. There were also no statistically significant differences in heart rate or salivary cortisol for the peak height of the response, reactivity, or AUCi or AUCg between the urban and green walking conditions.ConclusionOur findings suggest that physical exertion is the main driver of the acute physiological response to walking. Notwithstanding psychological benefits reported elsewhere, the acute physiological response to walking was not influenced by the green compared with the urban environment in the current study. Further research is warranted to understand the longer-term effects of regular green exercise.     

Needs and expectations of German and Chinese children for livable urban green spaces revealed by the method of empathy-based stories

One of the important features of cities is to provide high-quality outdoor environments for various groups of citizens. Although children are frequent users of green spaces, the knowledge and perspectives applied in planning and design of urban green spaces are mostly defined by adults. This results in spaces and practices that may limit the daily lives and creativity of urban children. Promoting child-friendly cities benefits from knowledge produced by children themselves, regarding their perceptions and experiences, as well as ideas and suggestions. This study provides empirical results concerning children’s needs and mental images for urban green spaces in two urban areas in two countries (Chengdu, China, and Ruhr Region, Germany). 765 children, ages 8–10 were surveyed through the method of empathy-based stories (MEBS). Participants were asked to use their imagination to write stories according to given scenarios. Our study shows that MEBS can be used to gather meaningful data with children, and that children are an important stakeholder group in urban planning, landscape design and management with an ability to express their diverse needs and preferences towards green spaces. Both designed green spaces (e.g. gardens, parks) and wild nature (e.g. forests, meadows) can offer a range of activities and experiences for children in their everyday lives: opportunities for play, socializing, contact with nature, aesthetic and restorative experiences, learning and exploration. Our findings include indications of children’s awareness of the diverse ecosystem services that green spaces provide, as well as of urban sustainability and livability. While we found German and Chinese children to have corresponding needs and expectations regarding urban green spaces and nature, we also found some variation. We suggest that the use of, and experiences in green spaces are linked not only to the landscape but also to conceptual-cultural contexts.     

Restorative properties of green sheltered spaces and their morphological characteristics in urban parks

The properties of green space for physical and mental health have been widely demonstrated, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. However, few studies have systematically focused on spatial indicator thresholds that provide a sense of refuge with restoration benefits. Four morphological indicators as area, coverage, enclosure, and the ratio of width to height(D/H), were quantified for thirty-one scenes in outdoor green sheltered spaces in seven urban parks of Harbin in China. The results show that the sense of refuge and the morphological character of a green space constitute elements that influence restorative properties. Green spaces with different morphological indicators have different restorative properties. The morphological indicator ranges that produce better restorative properties were obtained: 250–500 m² for area, 0.25–0.35 for coverage, 0.3–0.4 or 0.8–1 for enclosure, and 0.7–1.5 for D/H. This can provide references for the construction of restorative activity spaces in urban parks.     

Animals in urban green spaces in relation to mental restorative quality

Despite the important roles that animals play in ecosystems, their functions in urban green spaces are often overlooked. To fill this gap, this study explored the effects of four animal species on the mental restorative quality of urban green spaces by comparing observers’ response to pictures with and without animals. The results indicated that swans, deer, and pigeons which were unthreatening to humans could significantly improve mental restoration of observers, and comparatively, swans had the strongest effect. Conversely, unleashed dogs were a potential threat to humans, and decreased the mental restorative quality of urban green spaces. The mechanism of animals’ effects on mental restoration and the differential effects of four animal species were discussed. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study addressing the mental health impacts of animals in landscapes, and the results suggest that “animal-inclusive landscape design” has a positive impact on urban green spaces.     

Elderly visitors of an urban park,health anxiety and individual awareness of nature experiences

There is increasing evidence of a positive relation between green spaces in people's living environment and self-reported indicators of physical and mental health. However, to this moment health anxiety has not been contextualized in the light of the restorative and anxiolytic experiences of urban nature nor has it been studied in reference to the awareness of nature experiences. We aimed to determine whether “awareness of nature experiences” was a significant modifier of the beneficial effects of interaction of older citizens with urban green spaces. This construct represents the purposeful and conscious interaction with nature, a specific behaviour pre-formed as a cognitive representation of the “self” in a natural context, providing an internal replica of the previously experienced external natural world which guides people when they choose to visit an urban park. A cross-sectional interview study was conducted amongst 97 elderly visitors of “Tzar Simeon Garden” Park in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. After controlling for “awareness of nature experiences”, hierarchical multiple regression model accounted for 94% of the variance in health anxiety. The independent variables “appreciation of bird songs”, “appreciation of vegetation”, “weekly visits to the park” and “years of visiting the park” remained significant, but their power decreased, and “age” became non-significant predictor. The overall predictive capacity of the model rose significantly after “awareness of nature experiences” was added. In conclusion, health anxiety among Bulgarian elderly adults is somewhat higher than in other similar populations but still does not exceed acceptable levels. The actual interaction and experiences of the park were predictors of health anxiety independent from confounding factors. Their power, however, was to some extent dependent on individual “awareness of nature experiences”, which had unique contribution to the model.     

Effects of vegetation,urban density,building height,and atmospheric conditions on local temperatures and thermal comfort

This paper shows the effects of several variables, which co-cause the Urban Heat Island effect on temperature distribution and outdoor thermal comfort (by using the Predicted Mean Vote, PMV) on dense urban environments. The study was conducted by means of a three-dimensional microclimate model, ENVI-met 3.1, which forecasts the microclimatic changes within urban environments. The effects of building density (% of built area) and canyon effect (building height) on potential temperature, mean radiant temperature, and Predicted Mean Vote distribution are quantified. The influence of several types of green areas (vegetation on the ground and on roofs) on temperature mitigation and on comfort improvements is investigated for different atmospheric conditions and latitudes in a Mediterranean climate. The research quantifies the effects of the variables investigated on temperature distributions and in determining outdoor comfort conditions. Vegetation on the ground and on roofs mitigates summer temperatures, decreases the indoor cooling load demand, and improves outdoor comfort. The results of the study demonstrate that density and height of buildings in a city area influence potential temperature, mean radiant temperature, and Predicted Mean Vote distribution; for most of the cases examined higher density causes higher temperatures and with taller buildings vegetation has higher cooling effects. Considering the cooling effect of vegetation, a difference can be noticed depending on the amount of green areas and vegetation type. The results of this study show also that vegetation is more effective with higher temperatures and lower relative humidity values in mitigating potential temperatures, mean radiant temperatures, and PMV and in decreasing the cooling load demand.     

A “magic teleportation machine”: Ethnically diverse green space users derive similar cultural ecosystem benefits from urban nature

Green spaces are vital to the wellbeing of urban communities, largely due to the many Cultural Ecosystem Benefits (CEB) that nature contributes to outdoor recreation experiences (e.g., relaxation, inspiration, spiritual enrichment). To ensure equity in the distribution of CEB, however, we require a better understanding of how they relate to ethnicity. Through 100 in-situ semi-structured interviews with green space users in the Lee Valley Regional Park, London, UK, this research explored variation in outdoor recreational CEB based on i) ethnicity and ii) green space activity and attribute preferences. We compared green space preferences and CEB of Black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) and white users of two distinct types of urban green space: parks and more biodiverse Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). Both white and BAME visitors to parks prioritized games/sports and built features whereas visitors to SSSIs more often undertook wildlife viewing and prioritized natural features. However, we found that white and BAME users of both types of urban green space derived similar CEB. Peace and relaxation were primary among these benefits, a result of both nature interaction and its contrast to the urban environment. These results demonstrate that nature does not have to be the focal point of outdoor recreation to contribute to wellbeing; rather, even as a backdrop to sports and cultural activities, nature provides similar benefits to green space users. To promote use of green space and foster intercultural understanding, we recommend integrating these shared benefits obtained from nature within marketing and engagement strategies. Future research is needed to explore CEB variation within and among distinct ethnic communities to fully capture the diversity of lived experiences.     

Benefits and well-being perceived by people visiting green spaces in periods of heat stress

In urban environments, green spaces have proven to act as ameliorating factors of some climatic features related to heat stress, reducing their effects and providing comfortable outdoor settings for people. In addition, green spaces have demonstrated greater capacity, compared with built-up areas, for promoting human health and well-being. In this paper, we present results of a study conducted in Italy and the UK with the general goal to contribute to the theoretical and empirical rationale for linking green spaces with well-being in urban environments. Specifically, the study focused on the physical and psychological benefits and the general well-being associated with the use of green spaces on people when heat stress episodes are more likely to occur. A questionnaire was set up and administered to users of selected green spaces in Italy and the UK (n=800). Results indicate that longer and frequent visits of green spaces generate significant improvements of the perceived benefits and well-being among users. These results are consistent with the idea that the use of green spaces could alleviate the perception of thermal discomfort during periods of heat stress.     

Stress recovery and restorative effects of viewing different urban park scenes in Shanghai,China

ObjectivesMany studies have found that natural environments benefit human health and wellbeing, but few have measured restorativeness of specific landscape components, especially in Chinese settings. Because the rapid urbanization of China is accompanied by increasing predomination of hardscape components in cities, the restorative quality of urban green space is a crucial issue. This study explored the stress recovery effects of different videotaped scenes, using six urban parks and one urban roadway scene. Potentially restorative urban park scenes were controlled for nature-based vs. hardscape components, presence/absence of people, and level of openness.MethodsSubjects were Chinese university students (N = 140) aged 18–24. After completing an oral exam as a stressor, an equal number of males and females were randomly assigned to watch one of the seven videotaped scenes during a stress recovery stage, while data were collected on changes in stress and attentional levels. Physiological responses were measured by Electrocardiography (ECG) and Skin Conductance Response (SCR). Psychological responses were measured by the state (short-term) version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S), the Digit Span Backwards (DSB) test, and the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS).ResultsIn a Chinese sample, this study confirmed previous findings that nature-based urban park scenes relieved stress and restored attentional levels, while viewing an urban roadway increased negative feelings. Overall perceived restorativeness was significantly higher in two scenes depicting a Lawn without people and a Small Lake, compared with a paved Plaza with or without people, confirming previous findings that restorativeness is associated with predominance of nature-based landscape components. This study also confirmed previous findings that outdoor scenes without people were more restorative than scenes depicting people.DiscussionThis study found different levels of restorativeness associated with different landscape features, and helped confirm that nature-based components are more likely to reduce stress than hardscape components, using Chinese urban scenes with a Chinese population. Findings can be used in future planning and design of urban spaces in China, emphasizing the value of parks and green spaces in relevant contexts.     

Urban forests as compensation measures for infrastructure development

Sustainable development requires, among other things, that development projects not result in the degradation of natural resources for outdoor recreation. There has been a rapid increase in knowledge regarding the importance of the external environment to our health and well-being. Stress is reduced significantly when people are exposed to health-promoting nature and landscape values. Many people are actively choosing to reduce their stress. Doctors today prescribe outdoor walks in peaceful environments for the same purpose. A high level of traffic noise increases stress. This paper discusses the application of silent values in an infrastructure development project, the extension of Sturup Airport, east of Malmö, Sweden and Copenhagen, Denmark. Through estimating the change in noise resulting from the development, it is possible to integrate mitigating and compensating measures in the planning process discussions. Such measures can be negotiated as conditions for authorization of the project. The airport is situated in an area rich in nature values for recreation. The airport expansion will mean both new noise impacting "silent" areas and increasing noise levels in already noise-affected areas. In this study, we have taken a positive stand on the silent areas, mostly agriculture land, where compensation measures could be taken, thus balancing the loss of silent nature values for recreation. Silent areas that will not be affected are suitable and feassible for compensation measures thus can be called compensation areas. In this way the development of new recreational areas, preferably designed as urban forests, are critical preconditions for the negotiations for the airport extension. The conclusion is that urban forest investments for health and well-being can be an important part of strategic decisions in spatial planning. As preconditions for a permit, the development and financing of new urban forests and green areas can be part of the total development plan. This is an issue of global interest, as many countries are in a process of rapid urbanization, and urban greening and urban forestry have an important role to play in the process of promoting quality of life and improving environmental quality.     

Stressed individuals’ preferences for activities and environmental characteristics in green spaces

Everyday modern life offers fewer opportunities for outdoor activities and mental restoration. Outdoor activities in urban green spaces might be a promising means to lower levels of stress. Our hypothesis is that individuals’ Level of Stress (LS) is related to the interaction between preferences for certain perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) of the outdoor environment and certain types of outdoor activities.A total of 953 randomly selected informants, representative of the Swedish population, answered a postal questionnaire with pre-coded items. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: personal data, preferences for PSDs and for outdoor activities, and self-estimations of health. The study focuses on ill health in relation to Level of Stress (LS). The data was analysed using factor and regression analysis.The results show that individuals reporting high LS are more likely to: be younger adults, women, be on sick-leave, have small children, be dissatisfied with their home environment, experience poorer access to green spaces and, foremost, want to use public green spaces more often.Seventeen different outdoor activity types are identified. The most preferred activity type among the most stressed informants was ‘rest activities’ followed by ‘animal activities’ and ‘walking activities’. All pairs of these three activity types and PSDs showing a significant association were transformed into ‘activity-sensory dimension types’. A regression analysis shows that the most preferred activity-sensory dimension types for informants reporting high LS are ‘animal activities’ in the PSD ‘rich in species’, ‘animal activities’ in the PSD ‘refuge’, and ‘rest activities’ in the PSD ‘nature’.These results may be interpreted as providing information regarding how to plan urban green spaces with certain characteristics that could promote outdoor activities which are preferred by stressed individuals.     

Influence of environmental preference and environment type congruence on judgments of restoration potential

This study (N = 120) explored whether congruence between environmental preference and environment type influenced judgments of likelihood for directed attention restoration. The study differs from previous research by operationally defining preference as a representation of place identity from environmental psychology rather than as the attractiveness of the location. Preference was also treated as an influence on judgments of restoration potential instead of a consequence of directed attention fatigue. Persons experiencing images congruent with their environmental preference were expected to rate similar locations highest in restoration potential compared to incongruent images; however, this was not fully supported. Those with a nature preference perceived congruent environments as the most potentially restorative, but this was higher than, rather than equal to, the restoration expectations of those in the urban congruent condition. As expected, nature preferences influenced judgments of urban settings; this incongruence was rated least restorative. Persons with an urban preference perceived both nature and urban environments equal in restoration potential; this may explain circumstances when environment choice appears inconsistent to cognitive restoration goals. Water quality in the settings also influenced restoration judgments; pleasant waterscapes resulted in the best expectations. The findings illustrate the potential contribution of place identity from environmental psychology to the study of attention restoration outcomes and further support the growing literature endorsing the positive potential of urban settings.     

Shortcuts in urban green spaces: An analysis of incidental nature experiences associated with active mobility trips

Nature experiences and active mobility both deliver well-being and health benefits but have rarely been investigated together. Conceptualizations of nature experiences largely focus on intention, and the planned motivations for visits. However, nature experiences can also be perceived incidentally, if daily living activities like trips are encouraged towards green spaces. In a public participation GIS (PPGIS) survey of five local districts in Copenhagen, 517 respondents mapped 688 places along their walking or cycling shortcut trips through green spaces. This study investigated what types of green space provide opportunities for such shortcuts, what incidental nature experiences can be perceived there and the different responses of pedestrians and cyclists. This study also explored the relation between incidental nature experiences and green space characteristics in the form of tree cover density. Lastly, this study explored whether frequent short trips through green spaces relate to nature connectedness. The results show that public green spaces and urban cemeteries in Copenhagen allow for such shortcut trips. Enjoyment of pleasing views is the most perceived incidental nature experience. Pedestrians are found more prone to experience surprise, inspiration and emotion, while cyclists prefer shortcuts close to water, which they value highly. The study suggests that high tree cover density is key to delivering incidental nature experiences. Furthermore, the study shows that people who make frequent trips through green spaces have higher levels of nature connectedness, indicating that incidental nature experiences during shortcut trips trigger the reconnection of people and nature. The study’s results support a synergistic approach to integrating green spaces and active mobility in planning and management practice, where incidental nature experiences should be emphasized.     

Psychological benefits of green exercise in wild or urban greenspaces: A meta-analysis of controlled trials

Green exercise, the combination of exercise and nature exposure, is known to benefit physical and mental health. However, there is a lack of quantitative evidence to support the psychological advantage of green exercise over non-green exercise. Also, it is unclear if there are psychological differences between green exercise in wild environments and urban greenspaces. Therefore, we conducted a systematic literature search for outcomes concerning measures including the Profile of Mood States (POMS), Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Semantic Differential Method (SDM), Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS). Nineteen studies with 1662 participants were included in a meta-analysis to examine the advantages of green exercise and compare them in the two types of natural environments. The results indicate that green exercise may lower negative affect, including anxiety, tension, anger, depression, and fatigue. Meanwhile, green exercise may lead to higher positive moods and emotions, including vigor, comfort, natural feeling, and relaxation. Nevertheless, the effect on overall positive affect was not statistically significant. The comparative results suggest that wild environments may be more effective than urban greenspaces in improving vigor and comfort during green exercise. In conclusion, our findings support the advantages of green exercise over non-green exercise, meanwhile implying potential psychological differences between exercises in wild environments and urban greenspaces. Due to the limited number of studies and high heterogeneities, a future review is warranted to re-examine the psychological benefits.     

Urban green spaces and stress during COVID-19 lockdown: A case study for the city of Madrid

Due to the unexpected emergence of COVID-19, different cities improvised responses to prevent the virus from spreading and infecting the population. Madrid, capital of Spain and one of the most affected cities in Europe, confined everyone home and closed most public and private spaces, including public parks. The whole situation was surely to be responsible for stress-levels to peak. We developed an online survey to better understand the relationship between people and Urban Green Spaces prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the new bond that may have emerged from this interruption. We recruited participants, without gender or age preference, excluding underage children and teenagers, using a combination of convenience sample and a snowball approach. A total of 132 responses were logged. The study was limited to mental health inferences, specifically related to stress and its most frequent manifestations among the urban population. These indicators included physical, mood or behavioral changes and were studied on those participants who had access to UGS before and during confinement. Among the most important findings, we confirmed that when people are confronted with stressful situations, indoor plant interaction is not a substitute for different outdoor green experiences; those who interacted with green spaces in a daily manner managed stress levels better than people who didn’t (but their effects might lose strength over time); and turning to green spaces for comfort during stressful times when you don’t usually do so helps overcome difficult situations. This article contributes to the growing study of green spaces as a means towards improved mental well-being in urban areas.     

Planning small for winning big: Small urban green space distribution patterns in an expanding city

While major urban areas are expanding, becoming more crowded, vegetated lands areshrinking. Built-up densification limits the planning of large urban green spaces,depriving urban dwellers of the benefits provided by such structures. In this context,small public urban green spaces (SPUGS) become of high value for urban landscapes,and their distribution throughout the city should aim to compensate the lack of largergreen areas. The driving forces of SPUGS distribution may be linked to the urbanfunctions they are usually paired with.The current study aimed to determine which are the urban functions that benefit ofhigher amounts of SPUGS in their proximities and to map the distribution and densityof SPUGS within Bucharest, helping us expose the green deprived communities.Results revealed that multi-dwelling residential areas are the ones with higher share ofSPUGS within walking distance. Nevertheless, analysis on SPUGS deprivation withinthe city showed that communist planned residential neighbourhoods are greener thanthe ones developed in the past three decades. Healthcare and commercial functionswithin the city recorded smaller shares of SPUGS in their proximity, highlighting thatvulnerable groups (such as ill people) are exposed to less vegetation, and that publicplanning documents are not encouraging developers to allocate more land for greenfeature development.These results are relevant for projecting the quality of outdoor environmentsthroughout Romania’s capital and for assessing potential future managementchallenges. The outcomes of this research provide local policy makers and plannerswith the vulnerable areas in which immediate action for expanding the greeninfrastructures should take place. At the same time, the methodological approachdescribed in the study proved to be efficient in assessing the distribution of SPUGSthroughout the city and the determinants of this distribution. It can be easily replicatedin other cities by scholars and planners.     

Enhancing wellbeing with psychological tasks along forest trails

The purpose of the study was to investigate whether deliberate psychological tasks, intended to focus people’s attention on the interaction between themselves and natural surroundings, are linked with mood enhancement and self-reported restoration. In four European countries (Finland, France, Luxembourg, Sweden), we surveyed the experiences of volunteers (N = 299) who walked forest trails and carried out psychological tasks printed on the signposts along them. We investigated the similarities and differences of the trail experiences between the countries. Via multigroup modeling, we further examined the moderating role of nature-connectedness in relationships between satisfaction with the contents of the psychological tasks, mood enhancement, and restorative benefits. The results showed that, independent of age and gender, participants were more satisfied with the trails in Sweden and Luxembourg than in Finland. We detected no reliable differences in the restorative experiences or willingness to recommend the trail for others. In the moderation model, satisfaction with the signposts’ contents was connected to positive restorative change and mood enhancement. The moderator effects of nature-connectedness were not significant for either outcome. Thus, it is likely that satisfactory tasks will work equally well for people varying in nature-connectedness. This is a promising prospect for public health promotion. The fairly high level of nature-connectedness among the participants limits the generalizability of our results.Conclusions concerning the role of nature-connectedness should be made with caution due to the limited coverage of the concept in our measure. Future studies that separate the effect of psychological tasks from the restorative effects of nature itself are needed.     

How perceived sensory dimensions of urban green spaces are associated with adults’ perceived restoration,stress, and mental health?

This study investigates associations between perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) of urban green spaces (UGSs) and adults’ perceived restoration, stress, and mental health. Data were collected through surveys with 426 adults in 2019 in seven different UGSs in Aydın, Turkey. The PSDs of UGSs (nature, serene, space, rich in species, social, prospect, culture, and refuge) were evaluated and rated by two professional landscape architects. The perceived restorativeness (being away, fascination, coherence, and compatibility) was measured with the Perceived Restorativeness Scale, and health indicators (stress, mental health, mental health diagnosis, mental health treatment, general health, and quality of life) were measured with self-reported questions. Multivariate multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine associations controlling for confounding factors. Four of the eight PSDs were analyzed due to multicollinearity issues in the study. Regression analyses showed that ‘nature’ was positively associated with perceived restorativeness, stress, and mental health, while ‘refuge’ was only positively associated with perceived restorativeness. On the other hand, ‘serene’ was negatively associated with perceived restorativeness. Whereas ‘rich in species’ was found to be negatively associated with perceived restorativeness and positively associated with mental health diagnosis. In addition, findings showed that frequency of and duration of UGSs visit were negatively associated with perceived restorativeness. The findings suggest that providing characteristics of ‘nature’ and ‘refuge’ in UGSs may provide restorative effects and mental benefits to adults. However, unexpected results suggest that further research is needed before using these characteristics as a tool by landscape architects and city planners.