Exploring public preferences and preference heterogeneity for green and blue infrastructure in urban green spaces

Green and blue urban infrastructure (GBI) has many positive functions often not recognised by residents (e.g., microclimate regulation, water retention, etc.). The question for urban planners who are aware of these functions when planning new GBI elements or revitalising existing GBI is how much they need to account for the preference heterogeneity of locals, who typically consider only aesthetic and recreational value. This study uses data from a discrete choice experiment among residents of the medium-sized Czech city of Liberec to reveal which combinations of nature-based or semi-natural GBI and recreational facilities respondents prefer and how strong their preferences are in terms of their willingness to pay. Overall, study respondents preferred nature-based GBI to semi-natural ones. A mixed-latent class model identified two groups of respondents who differ in preferences, trade-offs, and socio-demographic characteristics: (i) mostly older educated women who prefer nature-based elements and enjoy park infrastructure; (ii) mostly less educated men who dislike urban gardens and semi-natural streams and do not value park infrastructure. Based on the results, we recommend that spatial planners and green space managers design and implement more nature-based elements in Liberec, which are in line with the respondents’ preferences.     

Happiness in urban green spaces: A systematic literature review

Urban green space is believed to contribute to residents' happiness. However, forming a holistic overview of this relationship based on regional studies is challenging. This review aims to synthesise the current evidence on the urban green space-happiness relationship. A systematic literature search was conducted on the Web of Science and Scopus between 2013 and 2023. A physical or subjective measure of urban green space and a measure of happiness served as the main inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria for the review were met by a total of 57 studies, which received a meticulous narrative synthesis. The review featured articles from 21 countries. The way to measure and describe happiness varied greatly among the studies. The narrative synthesis reported seven physical measures and six subjective measures of urban green space associated with happiness. Results revealed the improvement in physical measures of urban green space has the possibility to elevate people’s happiness. However, the strength of these associations varied depending on subjective measures, socio-demographic variables, and socio-economic factors, particularly in the global south. The contextual nuances of the urban green space-happiness relationship were observed throughout the review. The review highlights the importance of considering the comprehensive impact of urban green space on happiness and calls for further research on the regional scale to design inclusive urban green spaces.     

The multifunctionality concept in urban green infrastructure planning: A systematic literature review

Urban green infrastructure is critical for providing a wide range of ecosystem goods and services that benefit the urban population. Past studies have suggested that multifunctionality concerning urban infrastructure services and functions is a prerequisite for targeting effective and impactful urban green infrastructure. Moreover, urban green infrastructure with multiple functions can offer socio-economic and environmental benefits. However, there has been a knowledge gap in the planning literature to elaborate multiple ecosystem functions in urban green infrastructure. In particular, existing methods and approaches are lacking for quantifying and monitoring such ecological services and biodiversity in urban green infrastructures at different spatial scales. Therefore, this research aims to review studies focusing on the multifunctionality concept in urban green infrastructure planning. The study highlights the current status and knowledge gaps through a systematic review. Our analysis revealed that current studies on green infrastructure multifunctionality have focused on five main themes: 1) planning methods for urban green infrastructure, 2) assessment approaches of urban green infrastructure, 3) ecosystem services and their benefits, 4) sustainability and climate adaptation, and 5) urban agriculture. The study found that the five themes are somewhat connected to each other. The study has revealed a knowledge gap regarding incorporating multifunctional green infrastructure in the planning principle. The results suggest at least five critical elements to ensure multiple functions in urban infrastructure. The elements are spatial distribution, optimal distance, integrated network, accessibility, and public participation and engagement. The study further recommends research directions for future analysis on green infrastructure multifunctionality that are critical for urban planning.     

Green justice in the city: A new agenda for urban green space research in Europe

In this short communication, we discuss European urban green space (UGS) research from an environmental justice perspective. We show that European UGS scholarship primarily focuses on functional values and managerial aspects of UGS, while paying less attention to equity in the enjoyment of and decision-making around UGS. On this basis we discuss potentials for European urban green space research to take up a more explicit environmental justice framing to shed much-needed light on injustices in European cities and inspire change in policy and practice.     

Evaluating the risk of accessing green spaces in COVID-19 pandemic: A model for public urban green spaces (PUGS) in London

The pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) at the beginning of 2020 has restricted the human population indoor with some allowance for recreation in green spaces for social interaction and daily exercise. Understanding and measuring the risk of COVID-19 infection during public urban green spaces (PUGS) visits is essential to reduce the spread of the virus and improve well-being. This study builds a data-fused risk assessment model to evaluate the risk of visiting the PUGS in London. Three parameters are used for risk evaluation: the number of new cases at the middle-layer super output area (MSOA) level, the accessibility of each public green space and the Indices of Multiple Deprivation at the lower-layer super output area (LSOA) level. The model assesses 1357 PUGS and identifies the risk in three levels, high, medium and low, according to the results of a two-step clustering analysis. The spatial variability of risk across the city is demonstrated in the evaluation. The evaluation of risk can provide a better metric to the decision-making at both the individual level, on deciding which green space to visit, and the borough level, on how to implement restricting measures on green space access.     

Shortcuts in urban green spaces: An analysis of incidental nature experiences associated with active mobility trips

Nature experiences and active mobility both deliver well-being and health benefits but have rarely been investigated together. Conceptualizations of nature experiences largely focus on intention, and the planned motivations for visits. However, nature experiences can also be perceived incidentally, if daily living activities like trips are encouraged towards green spaces. In a public participation GIS (PPGIS) survey of five local districts in Copenhagen, 517 respondents mapped 688 places along their walking or cycling shortcut trips through green spaces. This study investigated what types of green space provide opportunities for such shortcuts, what incidental nature experiences can be perceived there and the different responses of pedestrians and cyclists. This study also explored the relation between incidental nature experiences and green space characteristics in the form of tree cover density. Lastly, this study explored whether frequent short trips through green spaces relate to nature connectedness. The results show that public green spaces and urban cemeteries in Copenhagen allow for such shortcut trips. Enjoyment of pleasing views is the most perceived incidental nature experience. Pedestrians are found more prone to experience surprise, inspiration and emotion, while cyclists prefer shortcuts close to water, which they value highly. The study suggests that high tree cover density is key to delivering incidental nature experiences. Furthermore, the study shows that people who make frequent trips through green spaces have higher levels of nature connectedness, indicating that incidental nature experiences during shortcut trips trigger the reconnection of people and nature. The study’s results support a synergistic approach to integrating green spaces and active mobility in planning and management practice, where incidental nature experiences should be emphasized.     

A novel index for assessing perceived availability and public demand for urban green space: Application in a Mediterranean island

The objective benefits that humans derive from natural ecosystems and their enduring manifestation in urban green spaces (UGS) is well-know. Nevertheless, citizens’ preference, and perceived necessity of UGS is not always evident and therefore often not accounted for, especially in the context of urban planning decisions, where it could positively influence the effectiveness of greening strategies. This information is especially important in the Mediterranean islands, due to their unique character. Here we address these aspects, including the way they are affected by UGS perceived adequacy, accessibility, maintenance, distance, and other self-reported obstacles using a questionnaire completed by 703 residents of the Island of Crete, Greece. To integrate results, main covariates are compiled into the newly developed public UGS approval index. Survey results show that, 87.82 % of the participants consider public UGS highly necessary for their wellbeing, while only 69.22 % consider private UGS equally necessary. Nevertheless, private UGS were the most frequently visited green at 16.3 ± 0.7 days/month. Public UGS is considered more necessary for female respondents, under 35 years, living in an apartment in the city. However, it emerged that despite the significantly higher need for public UGS in the urban centers of the island, residents consider UGS inadequate and often inaccessible for people with mobility problems. Integration of the results in the new approval index, shows that citizens of Crete, are on average neutral or disapprove of local public UGS. The outcomes can be used for targeted interventions at existing and strategic planning in new UGS.     

Economic development and natural amenity: An econometric analysis of urban green spaces in China

Rapid urbanization and spontaneous economic development has brought about profound changes in urban landscapes throughout the world. The task of managing transforming urban landscapes, particularly urban green spaces, so as to provide sufficient natural amenity for increasing urban populations, is one of the critical challenges facing policy makers. However, little empirical evidence exists about the evolving path of urban green spaces along with economic development and urbanization. This study attempts to fill in this knowledge gap through an econometric analysis of panel data across 285 Chinese cities during a period of rapid urbanization and economic growth (2001–2010). The results point to the existence of an N-shaped environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) for an important aspect of environmental quality: urban green spaces. Urban green space coverage increases at the initial stage of economic development, and then it starts to decrease as GDP per capita exceeds RMB50,855 and then increases again at a high GDP per capita level (RMB107,558). Large elasticity (>1) is expected as GDP per capita grows to a higher level (beyond RMB128,095). By the end of 2010, 30% of Chinese cities are still located on the downward-sloping path and only four cities have attained elasticities greater than one. The findings present a challenging and pressing call for policy makers to effectively manage the tradeoffs between continuous economic development and better natural amenities.     

Linking demand and supply factors in identifying cultural ecosystem services of urban green infrastructures: A review of European studies

Urban green infrastructure provides a number of cultural ecosystem services that are greatly appreciated by the public. In order to benefit from these services, actual contact with the respective ecosystem is often required. Furthermore, the type of services offered depend on the physical characteristics of the ecosystem. We conducted a review of publications dealing with demand or social factors such as user needs, preferences and values as well as spatially explicit supply or physical factors such as amount of green space, (bio)diversity, recreational infrastructure, etc. and linking demand and supply factors together. The aim was to provide an overview of this highly interdisciplinary research, to describe how these linkages are being made and to identify which factors significantly influence dependent variables such as levels of use, activities or health and well-being benefits. Commonly used methods were the combination of questionnaires with either on-site visual recording of elements or GIS data. Links between social and physical data were usually established either by using statistical tools or by overlaying different thematic maps. Compared to the large number of variables assessed in most studies, the significant effects in the end were relatively few, not consistent across the studies and largely dependent on the context they were seen in. Studies focused on aesthetic and recreational services, while spiritual, educational and inspirational services were not considered when creating links to spatially explicit ecological structures. We conclude that an improvement and harmonization of methodologies, cross-country studies and an expansion of this line of research to a wider range of services and more user groups could help clarify relationships and thereby increase applicability for urban management and planning.     

Informal urban greenspace: A typology and trilingual systematic review of its role for urban residents and trends in the literature

Urban greenspace is vital in fulfilling people's nature needs. Informal urban greenspace (IGS) such as vacant lots, street or railway verges and riverbanks is an often-overlooked part of the natural urban landscape. We lack a formal definition of IGS and a comprehensive review of knowledge about IGS and its role for urban residents. This paper advances a formal definition and typology of IGS that can be applied globally. Based on this definition, a total of 65 peer-reviewed papers in English (57), Japanese (7) and German (1) were reviewed. We analyzed this literature for its temporal trends, spatial patterns, studied IGS types, methods used and key authors, and summarized the individual research papers’ findings concerning IGS. Results show IGS plays an important role for urban residents, but also highlight limitations and problems in realizing IGS’ full potential. Research papers focused on perception, preferences, value and uses of IGS. Residents could distinguish between formal and informal greenspace. They preferred a medium level of human influence in IGS. The analysis of patterns in the literature reveals: a marked increase in publications in the last 20 years; a strong geographical bias towards the USA; and a lack of multi-type IGS studies including all IGS types. Publications outside of scholarly research papers also make valuable contributions to our understanding of IGS. Our results suggest IGS is emerging as an important sub-discipline of urban greening research.     

How different ethno-cultural groups value urban forests and its implications for managing urban nature in a multicultural landscape: A systematic review of the literature

Understanding how different ethno-cultural groups value urban nature is important to understand the role of ethno-cultural diversity in urban ecosystem management. Based on a systematic literature review, this paper summarizes the empirical evidence on how different ethno-cultural groups use, perceive, prefer, and assign meaning to urban nature. I use the urban forest, defined here as all the trees in a city, as a proxy to understand this process. The 31 studies reviewed here differ widely in their lines of inquiry, research methods, urban natural setting, and conceptualizations of ethno-cultural identity. Most studies take place in the US and Europe, where the most common definition of an ethno-culturally diverse group is a person of non-European/non-White background. Most studies focus on what these groups like about a particular urban natural setting, such as an urban park; and whether they like more or less trees in a specific context (e.g. urban park). These groups usually prefer passive and social uses of urban natural areas, and more manicured/functional natural landscapes with less trees. The most common meanings associated with urban natural settings dominated by trees are social interaction and integration. The most common explanations on why these differences occur involve theories on socio-economic marginality, collectivist vs. individualist cultures, urban vs. rural lifestyles, and landscapes of origin. Future research on the topic will benefit by differentiating race from ethnicity, capturing intra-ethnic variation, capturing immigrant identities, exploring the different social, cultural, and economic factors that influence values and/or preferences, and focusing on concrete aspects of urban nature, such as urban forests.     

Patterns of human behaviour in public urban green spaces: On the influence of users' profiles,surrounding environment,and space design

Public urban green spaces (PUGS) play a vital role in the dense urban fabric as places of Nature-Society contact and socialization. Despite some advances in the field, the relationship between the PUGS surroundings and their users' behaviours remains unclear. This study examined the patterns of human behaviour in four PUGS of the city of Porto, on the north Portuguese coast, where the behavioural mapping method was applied. Observational data regarding 979 PUGS users' socio-demographics and behaviours were recorded on a base map and a grid between August and November 2020. The use patterns during different times of the day were disaggregated across behaviours and users' profiles, and their relationship with the surroundings and design elements was assessed with ANOVA, Chi-Square test, and Pearson correlation. The findings presented may pave the way for future studies and inform the urban planning and design of the effectiveness of new interventions, namely providing more accurate aligning between the greenspace design language with users' needs. Furthermore, this study highlights the importance of considering the sociodemographic background of PUGS users and the surroundings to guide designers and planners.