Changes in the pattern of land use and its impact on the soils and soil cover of the Tushinskii and Pokrovskoe-Streshnevo forest parks of Moscow

The history of transformation of soils and soil cover in the Tushinskii and Pokrovskoe-Streshnevo forest parks of Moscow is investigated. The peculiarities of the influence of anthropogenic activities on the soil cover and soils are examined with the use of maps and textual materials for a period of more than four centuries. The historical stages of anthropogenic disturbance are established, and different ways of anthropogenic transformation of the soil profiles are described.     

Anthropogenic Soils on the Territory of the New Jerusalem Monastery,Moscow Region

The soil cover inside the walls of the New Jerusalem Monastery (in the city of Istra, Moscow region) has been completely transformed during the long history of anthropogenic loads on the local landscape. Specific anthropogenic soils have been formed from the technogenic deposits on the top and slopes of the monastery hill. These soils contain numerous artifacts; in their upper part, horizons with characteristic features of the modern humus-accumulative process have been developed. The major types of anthropogenic soils on the territory of the monastery—urbiagrostratozems, soddy urbistratozems, and soddy-calcareous urbistratified soils—have been described. The composition of technogenic deposits determines the shift of pH values towards the alkaline reaction, the high content of available phosphorus compounds, and the soil contamination with heavy metals. The post-alluvial gray-humus soils close in their morphology and chemical properties to the natural soils of the floodplain predominate in the soil cover of the park zone adjacent to the walls of the monastery in the Istra River valley.     

The impact of clearcutting in boreal forests of Russia on soils: A review

Data on the impact of tree logging in boreal forests of Russia on soils are systematized. Patterns of soil disturbances and transformation of microclimatic parameters within clearcutting areas are discussed. Changes in the conditions of pedogenesis in secondary forests are analyzed. It is suggested that the changes in forest soils upon reforestation of clearcutting areas might be considered as specific post-logging soil successions. Data characterizing changes in the thickness of litter horizons and in the intensity of elementary pedogenic processes, acidity, and the content of exchangeable bases in soils of clearcutting areas in the course of their natural reforestation are considered. The examples of human-disturbed (turbated) soil horizons and newly formed anthropogenic soils on clearcutting areas are described. It is suggested that the soils on mechanically disturbed parts of clearcutting areas can be separated as a specific group of detritus turbozems.     

Long-term dynamics of the anthropogenic salinization of soils in Moscow (by the example of the Eastern district)

The long-term (1989–2010) and seasonal dynamics of the anthropogenic salinization of soils related to the use of deicing mixtures in the Eastern Administrative District of Moscow were examined. Data on the chemical composition of deicing mixtures and on the contents of soluble salts in the snowmelt and in the soil profiles of different functional zones were analyzed. The maps of soil salinization were compiled for 1989, 2005, and 2010; on their basis, the resulting map of the degree of soil degradation was developed. The areas with abnormal concentration of salts in the soils expanded during the study period (21 yrs), and the average content of salts in such areas increased by 3.2 times. The maximum total content of salts was found in the spring season in the soils along major highways.     

Criteria and methods to assess the ecological status of soils in relation to the landscaping of urban territories

The ecological status and functioning of soils in urban ecosystems are considered. A series of criteria and simple methods of their determination are suggested to assess soil suitability for landscaping purposes. Their practical application is shown by the example of the ecological assessment and monitoring survey of different urban territories in the southwestern, western, and northwestern administrative districts of Moscow and in Moscow suburbs. It is shown that the main damage to the soils of actively used territories in Moscow is due to the artificial salinization induced by the application of deicing substances and fertilizers. The second factor of soil degradation is the soil compaction. An unfavorable water and air regime (a deficit or excess of soil moisture) is a factor that manifests itself sporadically in time (during the extremely dry years) and in space (at the sites with an increased soil compaction and soil water evaporation). A considerable decrease in the potential biological activity of urban soils, including the soils of newly built residential areas, in comparison with their natural analogues attests to the disturbance of their functioning under the impact of chemical pollution and an unfavorable physical status.     

An assessment of anthropogenic soil transformation of the arkhangelskoe museum estate based on the example of studying inclusions

The natural soil cover of a territory is transformed during the formation of landscape architecture objects. Natural soils are replaced by anthropogenically transformed soils and soil-like bodies. Due to technological features, either only surface horizons of natural soils or an entire range of horizons within a significant profile can be replaced. To determine the extent of transformation, the composition of inclusions of anthropogenically transformed and anthropogenic soils of the museum-estate Arkhangelskoe was studied. The study results were used to assess the extent of soil contamination and to determine the features of the composition of anthropogenic inclusions. A practical proposal on research on the coarse fraction inclusions of the soil was made.     

Discrimination of lithogenic and anthropogenic influences on topsoil magnetic susceptibility in Central Europe

The study was performed on the area of the three countries involved in the MAGPROX project (Poland, Czech Rep., Germany). In the first stage the basic map of magnetic susceptibility based on the field topsoil measurement was compiled with an average grid density of 10 km. In the second stage of the study, vertical distribution of magnetic susceptibility of ca. 600 topsoil cores (0.3 m long), collected over central Europe, was examined with respect to the anthropogenic or lithogenic influence on magnetic susceptibility of the soil surface, with the focus being on the interpretation of the areas showing high surface susceptibility values. The maximum values were mostly observed in depths of 3–4 cm. In general seven different types of susceptibility profiles from forest areas and one typical for urban soil are presented. They are a result of a combination of natural (litho- and pedogenic) and anthropogenic contributions. Our results prove that soil profiles, dominated by anthropogenic influence due to atmospherically deposited dust, are characterized by magnetically enhanced humuous layer, corresponding to layer with the highest concentration of heavy metals. Moreover, forest soils show in these cases higher magnetic susceptibility than soils in open areas (grassland, meadows or arable soils).     

Contribution of technic materials to the mobile fraction of metals in urban soils in Marrakech (Morocco)

Background, Aim and Scope  In urban areas, soils are often dramatically altered by anthropogenic activity and these modifications distinguish these soils (Anthrosols, Technosols) from those in natural systems. In urban environments, they receive considerable pollution from industry, traffic and refuse. Since contaminated soil particles can be easily inhaled or ingested, there is a potential transfer of toxic pollutants to humans. Risk assessment is essentially based on the determination of the total or mobile contents of pollutants in soils using chemical extractions. This approach could be improved by taking into consideration the bioavailable fractions of these toxic elements as measured by biotests. The coarse soil fraction usually neglected in analyses can nevertheless have an effect on the concentration of metals in the soil solution. This coarse fraction is made up of the natural materials and of technic materials constituting anthropogenic soils (plastic, paper, fabric, wood, bones, metallic elements and building materials). These materials have variable capacities to release or adsorb trace elements. Samples representative of different technic fraction components of Marrakech urban soils permit one to quantify their contribution to the enrichment of the soluble metal concentrations. Works are carried out to achieve partial extractions of metals from the three fractions (less than 2 mm, coarse natural and coarse technic) of selected urban soils in order to determine their contribution to the metal contamination of soils. Materials and Methods  Selected soils were collected from 9 sites according to a gradient of increasing anthropogenic influence from suburban to urban zones. Soils were air-dried, homogenized, and sieved (2 mm). The coarse fraction was sorted to separate the different technic materials and natural materials. Water extractions were run, on the natural, coarse fraction, on the complete technic fraction of the 9 soils and on average samples made of technic materials sorted out of 58 topsoils sampled from different sites in the city of Marrakech. Results  Results show that the percentage of the technic fraction increases while approaching the historic city center. It represented about 14% in the most anthropogenically disturbed soils. Along this gradient, soils changed progressively from Anthrosols to Technosols according to the WRB classification of urban and industrial soils. Analyses of metal contents showed that the fine fraction (<2 mm) mainly contributed to the metallic contamination of the water soluble fraction. The natural coarse fraction had the highest contribution to the copper release and was responsible for the release of all water-extractable copper in some soils. Concerning the technic fraction, it has a significant contribution essentially in the most anthropogenically disturbed soils as characterized by an elevated percentage of anthropogenic elements. The water extractable metal contents of average samples of these anthropogenic elements shows that elevated metal concentrations were released by bones, wood, plastic and fabric/paper. Discussion  This study concerns soils in urban areas, which are strongly impacted by human activities. Part of the soils can be classified as Anthrosols, profoundly impacted through the addition of organic materials from household wastes, irrigation, or cultivation. Other soils strongly impacted by human activities are Technosols dominated or strongly influenced by man-made materials. Technosols appear mostly in urban and industrial areas and are more likely to be contaminated than Anthrosols. The composition and heterogeneity of urban soils lead to modifications of the mobility and availability of pollutants depending on successive land-uses and on the composition of technic materials. The fine fraction offers a high transferring surface capacity, leading to a high mobilization of metals. The technic fraction contributes significantly to the metal release in the Technosols. This property can be explained by a reversible adsorption of metals on the organic matter. Conclusions  Results confirm that anthropogenic activity causes a wide spatial diversity of soil quality in the urban and suburban area. It introduces large amounts of technic materials in soils that could have an impact on the metal availability. It therefore acts on the metal bioavailability in the urban Technosols. Recommendations and Perspectives  These results show that it is necessary, in addition to the characterization of the fine particles, to take into account the contribution of the coarse fraction of the Technosols in the evaluation of risks of transfer of metals to the food chain.     

Automated updating of medium-scale soil maps

An approach towards an automated updating of medium-scale soil maps via imitation of traditional mapping technologies is suggested. It is based on formulation of the rules of mapping in the form of classification trees for separating different soil cover patterns and on creation of the maps of soil-forming factors with the use of satellite data. Algorithms for mapping alluvial soils (Fluvisols), eroded (abraded), and anthropogenically transformed soils are presented. This approach was tested for the southern (Trans-Oka) part of Moscow oblast. The model for an automated soil mapping was realized using ILWIS software. The polygons of alluvial soils were mapped with a higher accuracy via the automated separation of floodplains according to the digital terrain model. The total area of alluvial soils shown on the medium-scale soil map decreased from 373 to 340 km². Calculations of slope angles according to digital terrain models allowed us to localize soil cover patterns with participation of eroded soils with a higher accuracy; their area decreased insignificantly: from 791 to 781 km². Anthropogenically transformed soils of building areas were mapped for the territory of Moscow oblast on the basis of satellite data for the first time. Their areas were delineated taking into account land use types and comprised 551 km², i.e., 15.4% of the total area (3570 km²) of the Trans-Oka part of Moscow oblast.     

The mineral background of the anthropogenic soils of landscape architecture objects

During the creation of landscape architecture the mineral background of natural soils is transformed and new artificial soils are created. The mineral content and the grain texture of an anthropogenic changed soil of the Arkhangelskoe manor museum were studied as an object of a landscape architecture. The degree of transformation of the natural soils was evaluated. The features of constructozems were determined: the significant sandiness of the upper part of the profile, high variability of distribution of soil grain fractions, the changes in concentrations of the share participation of minerals and their distribution, and also the mismatch between the degree of weathering of the mineral component and the absolute soil age. According to the data we obtained, practical suggestions for forming of organic-sandy mixtures, which are used for anthropogenic soil construction, were made.     

The development of approaches to assess the soil organic carbon pools in megapolises and small settlements

An approach to assess the soil organic carbon (SOC) pools in megapolises and in small settlements with due account for the natural, economic, and historical heterogeneity of urban territories; the degree of the soil sealing; and the specific features of their functional use is discussed. Cartographic information, satellite imagery, geoinformation systems, and field and literature data have been applied to adapt this approach for Moscow and for the town of Serebryanye Prudy in Moscow oblast. The pool of SOC has been calculated for the topsoil horizons (0–10 cm) and for the total thickness of the cultural layer (habitation deposits) in these urban areas. The total SOC pool comprises 13 833.0 × 10³ t (with an error of 30–40%) for Moscow and 2 996.6 × 10³ t (with an error of 50–70%) for Serebryanye Prudy. The specific carbon pools for these territories reach 128 and 810 t/ha, respectively. The cultural layer of Moscow concentrates about 75% of the total SOC pool; in Serebryanye Prudy, it contains about 95% of the total SOC pool. The SOC pools in the urban soils are comparable with or exceed the SOC pools in the corresponding natural zonal soils.     

Soil Cover of the Svetloyarsk Irrigation System after 50 Years of Reclamation Practices

The state of irrigated soils of the Svetloyarsk irrigation system (Volgograd oblast) after 50 years or irrigation and ameliorative impacts has been assessed with the use of published and new field data, cadastral materials, and remote sensing materials. In the recent two decades, the area of regular irrigation and the volume of irrigation water have decreased, which has led to the lowering of the groundwater level to the depth of 5 m and more. The pattern of sown areas is characterized by a rise in the portion of winter cereals. Surface planing during the construction of the irrigation system led to a considerable transformation of the soil cover. On convex elements, solonetzic and other topsoil horizons were almost completely cut off. In many areas, they were replaced by a mixture of different horizons, including carbonaceous material. There are now significant areas of soils of different geneses with carbonates from the surface. Former solonchakous and slightly solonchakous soils are now at the stage of deep desalinization: soluble salts in them have been washed to the second meter, where slightly or moderately saline horizons with a predominance of sulfates have been formed. Irrigated areas on satellite images are specified by spotty patterns differing from those of natural solonetzic soil complexes because of the significant transformation of the soil cover during the construction and operation of irrigation system. The anthropogenically transformed soils can be mapped. Soil maps reflecting the modern state of the of soil cover of irrigated areas are given.     

The 137Cs technique applied to steep Mediterranean slopes (Part I): the effects of lithology,slope morphology and land use

Concentrations in the soil of anthropogenic and natural radionuclides have been investigated in order to assess the applicability of the ¹³⁷Cs technique in an area of typical Mediterranean steep slopes. This technique can be used to estimate net soil redistribution rates but its potential in areas with shallow and stony soils on hard rock lithology have not been evaluated so far. In this research, the validity of using this technique in stony shallow soils at very steep slopes is discussed together with the relations between radionuclide concentrations and other soil properties, lithology, slope morphology and land use in a Mediterranean environment. Both natural Potassium-40 (⁴⁰K), Uranium-238 (²³⁸U), Thorium-232 (²³²Th) and anthropogenic Caesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs) radionuclides have been determined in samples taken along slope transects on uncultivated serpentinite soils and cultivated gneiss soils. In addition to the radionuclide concentrations, parameters such as slope position, slope angle, aspect, soil depth, surface stone cover, moss, litter, vegetation cover, soil crust, stone content and bulk density have been quantified.All the natural radionuclides ⁴⁰K, ²³⁸U, ²³²Th show significantly higher concentrations in the gneiss than in the serpentinite soils, opposed to the ¹³⁷Cs concentration, which is found significantly higher in the serpentinite soils probably because of the difference in clay mineralogy. The exponential decreasing depth distribution of ¹³⁷Cs and its homogeneous spatial distribution emphasise the applicability of the ¹³⁷Cs technique in this ecosystem.Lithology determines the concentration of natural and anthropogenic radionuclides. Land use determines the relations between ¹³⁷Cs concentration/inventory and some soil characteristics. Higher ¹³⁷Cs concentration and inventory are associated with higher percentages of vegetation cover, higher percentage of stones in the soil and higher values of soil bulk density in cultivated gneiss soils. Slope morphology and land use influence the soil redistribution at slope scale. The gneiss slopes show a zonation of four to five areas of differential erosion/accumulation processes corresponding with more regular slopes and soil redistribution due to water erosion and to tillage translocation and erosion. The serpentinites, as an example of a more unstable slope type, show more erosion areas with less accumulation downslope and soil redistribution due to water erosion.     

Classification of anthrosols with vitric/andic properties derived from lignite ash

To test the applicability of the Soil Reference Base of Soil Resources (ISSS/ISRIC/FAO, 1998. World Reference Base for Soil Resources, World Soil Resources Report 84, FAO, Rome) for soils derived from anthropogenic substrates, soils developed on lignite ashes in Germany which have some similarities with andosols were compared with natural volcanic soils from different countries. Soil parameters used for comparison were bulk density, clay content, Al_o+0.5 Fe_o, and P-retention, as they serve as diagnostic criteria to define either vitric or andic horizons. For Al_o+0.5 Fe_o, and P-retention, there was no statistically significant difference between both soil groups, the bulk densities of the lignite ash-derived soils were even significantly lower than those of the natural volcanic soils. Moreover, pH, total organic carbon, cation exchange capacity as well as the contents of carbonates and gypsum were collated and differences emerged between both soil groups concerning the contents of carbonates, gypsum and total organic carbon. In case of the lignite ash-derived soils, these parameters as well as the contents of oxalate soluble oxides were strongly influenced by the composition of the anthropogenic parent material. Up to now, such soil materials are not included as soil-forming materials in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources. We therefore suggested the introduction of a new diagnostic soil material, the so-called technogenic soil material into the anthropogeomorphic soil materials and to introduce “technogenic anthrosols” as a new reference subunit. In our proposition, technogenic materials are defined as anthropogeomorphic materials which are formed by technical processes including a distinct degree of transformation and/or new formation of soil-forming materials. Soil materials are categorised as “technogenic” when they consist of more than 70% (by volume) of soil material derived from technical processes like, e.g. combustion products of fossil energy sources, sewage sludges, blast furnace slags, etc.To include as much information as possible into the name of a soil, we developed a concept of reference soil series for the WRB combining pedogenetic and lithogenic information. Within this concept, these soils should be considered to be a subunit of anthrosols (vitri- or andi-technogenic anthrosols) and the specific properties of the soil-forming material (coaly, calcaric, gypsiric) should be given as additional information as Reference Soil Series as well as texture and kind of parent material.     

Nature and significance of anthropogenic urban soils

Background, Aims and Scope

Anthropogenic and natural urban soils are of increasing significance in a world with accelerating urbanization. Thus, anthropogenic urban soils must be considered as an fundamental ecological asset for land-use planning. Furthermore, they are of interest for fundamental soil sciences, since there properties are rarely investigated and can differ substantially from landscape soils. Numerous studies on their properties exist, in particular with respect to contamination. It is argued that urban soils are ecological assets of cities, a point of view shared with the AKS (working group on urban soils within the German Soil Science Society). In this commentary, an overview of less recognized topics is presented with specific reference to topics such as ‘co-development of anthropogenic urban soils within their cities’ and the principles of ‘stock flow of anthropogenic urban soils forming materials’ are discussed to complete the pedological and ecological view on urban soils. Additionally, the significance of (anthropogenic) urban soils is highlighted to strengthen consideration in urban spatial planning.

Main Features

Historical and recent impacts on soils and parent materials are related with soil properties. Definitions and taxonomic terms for anthropogenic soils are presented. Furthermore, the context with the functionality of such soils is discussed. The principles of mapping and evaluation of anthropogenic urban soils are explained to stress the practicability of management tools for such soils.

Results and Discussion

A semi-quantitative consideration of parent material flows in anthropogenic urban soils indicates the enormous increase of the areas of supply of cities since the pre-industrial period. Since 1950, the inner-urban deposition of solid materials, including dust stopped to increase or increases slowly in the early industrialized regions. In contrast, the deposition and reuse of rubble, inorganic and organic waste as well as dust increases much in the late industrialized regions of the last decades.

Conclusions

The significance of anthropogenic urban soils in ecological soil management became obvious by numerous scientific studies. Moreover, it is recognized that management of different areas in urban environments must respect the functionality of their soils. It is therefore of importance that pedology is integrated with related disciplines such as archaeology, history and urban planning. The scientific knowledge, the appropriate methods and tools are now available to promote and support the management of anthropogenic urban soils.

Recommendations and Perspectives

It is recommended that research conducted over the past two decades should be introduced into soil management, especially with regard to the evaluation of soil quality. Accordingly, results of collaborative studies by soil scientists and city planners need to be integrated into political frameworks like the European Soil Strategy. It is also recognized that knowledge regarding anthropogenic urban soils in the tropics, the southern hemisphere and far north is lacking, a point which will need to be addressed in the future.

Dedication

This publication is dedicated to the 20th anniversary of the AKS (Arbeitskreis Stadtböden).

     

河南省典型含有人工制品土壤的系统分类研究

选取河南省10个典型含有人工制品的土壤剖面和3个自然土壤剖面作为研究对象,基于剖面形态和理化性质的分析,根据世界土壤资源参比基础(WRB)、美国土壤系统分类(ST)、中国土壤系统分类(CST),对供试土壤进行分类研究。结果表明,WRB中关于人工扰动的前缀修饰词或后缀修饰词不能完全适宜于中国地区的含有人工制品的土壤,而在ST中,含有人工制品的土壤类型出现在各个土纲及其包含的亚类单元,CST中缺乏明确的诊断依据来描述、解释含有人工制品的土壤特征。参照WRB和ST中关于人工制品类别相关标准,提出CST中含有人工制品的土壤定义,新增"技术扰动层"诊断特性,制定CST人工制品类别标准,并将这一标准体现在CST土族命名中,该分类方案能有效体现不同人为活动对土壤的影响结果,一定程度上填补我国对这类土壤分类研究的空白。     

Humus Horizons of Soils in Urban Ecosystems

The origin, structure, composition, and properties of soil humus horizons in functional zones of St. Petersburg have been studied. The radiocarbon age of organic matter in the humus horizons varies from 500 to 2700 years, which attests to the natural origin of humus. The structure of microbiomes in the humus horizons of soils under different plant communities has its specific features. The taxonomic structure of microbial communities at the phylum level reflects both genetic features of natural soils and the impact of anthropogenic factors, including alkalization typical of the studied urban soils. Tomographic studies have shown that the transporting system of humus horizons is less developed in the anthropogenically transformed soils in comparison with the natural soils. It can be supposed that the intensity of water and gas exchange in the anthropogenic soils is much lower than that in the natural soils. The fractional and group composition of humus in the urban soils is specified by the long-term pedogenesis, on one hand, and by the impact of metabolic products of the city and the factors of soil formation in the megalopolis, on the other hand. Bulk density of the humus horizon in the urban soils is higher than that in the natural soils; the portion of overcompacted humus horizons in the urban soils reaches 44%. Humus horizons of the lawns along highways are most contaminated with heavy metals: Pb, Zn, and Cu. There are no definite regularities in the distribution of major nutrients (NPK) in the humus horizons of anthropogenic soils.     

Urban soil resources of medium-sized cities in Poland: a comparative case study of Toruń and Zielona Góra

Purpose

Despite the many studies of urban soils, a comparative analysis for cities of a similar size has not yet been conducted. Thus, the aim of this review paper was to compare the soil distribution patterns in the area of two medium-sized Polish cities (Toruń and Zielona Góra). The authors attempted to answer the question of how natural and technogenic factors contributed to the transformation of urban soils and what the similarities and differences are between these two studied cities.

Materials and methods

First, both the natural and the human-related (including historical) factors influencing the soil formation in the studied cities were analysed. Then, a comparison of the degree of transformation of the urban soil environment was presented. The data obtained by the authors during nearly two decades of research (over 200 soil profiles) were used.

Results and discussion

Intensive development of the built-up areas in Toruń brought heavy and long-term transformations of soils, which demonstrate the typical properties of Urbic Technosols, Ekranic Technosols and other technogenic soils. Zielona Góra showed a similar state of soil transformation over a considerably smaller area. Currently, the differences in the soil properties in many built up areas have been blurred, despite the habitat and historical base. The similarities of the soil properties concerned, in particular, a high content of skeletal remains (from a few to over 30%), elevated pH (in KCl) values (even above 8.0) and the artificial soil horizons formation. Both cities struggle with similar problems regarding the changes in the land use within the areas covered by these soils.

Conclusions

It was found that, despite the significant habitat and historical differences between the two studied cities, most of the urban soils, especially Urbic Technosols, Ekranic Technosols and Regosols (Relocatic and Technic), are characterised by similar morphology and properties. The most important differences are the time and scale of the area transformation, which influence the extent of Technosols and Anthrosols within the city borders. The most distinct differences concern the natural and slightly transformed soils, which are the results of various soil-forming factors.