Choosing What to Believe About Forests: Differences Between Professional and Non-Professional Evaluative Criteria

This study examined the process of information exchange between natural resource management professionals and forest owners to determine whether and how professionals could improve their ability to persuade forest owners to adopt recommended stewardship practices. Using the inductive ‘grounded theory’ method of qualitative research, 109 stakeholders throughout the State of Washington, USA were interviewed and asked to discuss their information sources and preferences. The study findings reveal that many natural resource management professionals may not correctly anticipate how forest owners evaluate new forest management information. Professionals in the study typically chose and evaluated new information on the basis of established standards of scientific credibility, including peer review or the professional reputation of the individuals and institutions conducting the research or publishing the information. Most professionals expected forest owners would do the same. Forest owners with non-professional backgrounds, however, were often unfamiliar with or unimpressed by such credentials, and often used a very different evaluative screen. Willingness to adopt information was greatly influenced by their social impressions of the individuals delivering it. When a professional pressed for an ‘expert to non-expert’ relationship or did not establish a mutually respectful interpersonal learning atmosphere, non-professional forest owners frequently resisted not only that individual, but also the information they provided. This paper links these findings to androgogy (adult learning theory), and demonstrates that the natural resource professionals most effective with forest owners are those providing what the established literature describes as classic elements of a good adult learning environment. These elements include empathy, mutual respect, non-hierarchical information exchange, praxis, emphasis on experiential rather than passive learning, and evidence that tangible results may be expected. An improved understanding of the fundamentals of the adult learning process can be expected to enhance the effectiveness of natural resource professionals in information exchange with forest owners.     

Attitudes of small-scale forest owners to their properties in an ageing society: Findings of survey in Yamaguchi prefecture, Japan

Populations of most developed countries have been ageing, and the populations of Japanese mountain villages are estimated to have reached into a super-ageing society. In particular, because forestry is unprofitable and due to the economic recession in Japan, many small-scale forest owners face the problems of ageing. For policy-makers, it is important to assess the socioeconomic impacts of forest owners’ ageing in order to ensure the sustainable management of forests. A survey was conducted of forest owners in Yamaguchi Prefecture, which is famous for overall depopulation and ageing of the rural population. It was found that 83% of 687 plantation forest owners who responded in the survey were 60 years or older and 76% did not have forestry income over the past three years, but 81% had kept up ownership of their forest as the traditional family property. In terms of forest management intentions, the respondents were found to consist of four types, namely ‘family management’, ‘commissioned management’, ‘de-accession’ and ‘possession without proper management’. Differences in evaluations of hypothetical policies were found among the four types.     

An assessment of the benefits and limitations of the shamba agroforestry system in Kenya and of management and policy requirements for its successful and sustainable reintroduction

The shamba system involves farmers tending tree saplings on state-owned forest land in return for being permitted to intercrop perennial food crops until canopy closure. At one time the system was used throughout all state-owned forest lands in Kenya, accounting for a large proportion of some 160,000 ha. The system should theoretically be mutually beneficial to both local people and the government. However the system has had a chequered past in Kenya due to widespread malpractice and associated environmental degradation. It was last banned in 2003 but in early 2008 field trials were initiated for its reintroduction. This study aimed to: assess the benefits and limitations of the shamba system in Kenya; assess the main influences on the extent to which the limitations and benefits are realised and; consider the management and policy requirements for the system’s successful and sustainable operation. Information was obtained from 133 questionnaires using mainly open ended questions and six participatory workshops carried out in forest-adjacent communities on the western slopes of Mount Kenya in Nyeri district. In addition interviews were conducted with key informants from communities and organisations. There was strong desire amongst local people for the system’s reintroduction given that it had provided significant food, income and employment. Local perceptions of the failings of the system included firstly mismanagement by government or forest authorities and secondly abuse of the system by shamba farmers and outsiders. Improvements local people considered necessary for the shamba system to work included more accountability and transparency in administration and better rules with respect to plot allocation and stewardship. Ninety-seven percent of respondents said they would like to be more involved in management of the forest and 80% that they were willing to pay for the use of a plot. The study concludes that the structural framework laid down by the 2005 Forests Act, which includes provision for the reimplementation of the shamba system under the new plantation establishment and livelihood improvement scheme (PELIS) [It should be noted that whilst the shamba system was re-branded in 2008 under the acronym PELIS, for the sake of simplicity the authors continue to refer to the ‘shamba system’ and ‘shamba farmers’ throughout this paper.], is weakened because insufficient power is likely to be devolved to local people, casting them merely as ‘forest users’ and the shamba system as a ‘forest user right’. In so doing the system’s potential to both facilitate and embody the participation of local people in forest management is limited and the long-term sustainability of the new system is questionable. Suggested instruments to address this include some degree of sharing of profits from forest timber, performance related guarantees for farmers to gain a new plot and use of joint committees consisting of local people and the forest authorities for long term management of forests.

Exploring the Socio-Economic Situation of Plantation Villagers: A Case Study in Myanmar Bago Yoma

Since the early 1980s, Myanmar Forest Department has been recruiting shifting cultivators, establishing plantation villages and applying the taungya method in establishing teak plantations. From the beginning, there has been an argument about whether the program is creating ‘forest protective groups’ or ‘forest destructive groups’. A key determinant to that question from the research viewpoint is the socio-economic situation; knowing the present situation of the plantation villagers can help to understand their forest management practices. Interview surveys were carried out in three villages in Bago Yoma, the main region of the special teak plantation program, to examine the current economic benefits to plantation villagers. Questions were designed mainly to explore the incentives for people participation and the socio-economic situations of the plantation villagers. Principal component analysis was used to group landholder types. It was found that local people are willing to participate in the initial establishment of plantations. However, all the incentives relating to plantation projects are temporary, with no long-term consideration for taungya farmers, which jeopardizes the plan to create forest protective groups. It is concluded that the time has come for the Myanmar Forest Department to change its main aim of earning foreign exchange from establishment of teak plantations through the taungya method to redressing deforestation through people participation based on rural socio-economic development.

Competing Visions: Domestic Forests, Politics and Forest Policy in the Central Western Ghats of South India

Rural people in developing countries including India continue to access a number of types of ‘forests’ to meet specific needs such as fuelwood, fodder, food, non-timber forest produce and timber for both subsistence and income generation. While a plethora of terms exist to describe the types of forests that rural people use—such as farm forests, social forests, community forests and small-scale forests—the expression domestic forest has recently been proposed. Domestic forest is a term aimed at capturing the diversity of forests transformed and managed by rural communities and a way to introduce a new scientific domain that recognises that production and conservation can be reconciled and that local communities can be effective managers. This paper argues in the context of the central Western Ghats of south India that while the domestic forest concept is a useful umbrella term to capture the diversity of forests used by rural people, these domestic forests are often not autonomous local forests but sites of contestation between local actors and the state forest bureaucracy. Hence, a paradigm shift within the forest bureaucracy will only occur if the scientific forestry community questions its own normative views on forest management and sees forest policy as a means to recognise local claims and support existing practices of forest dependent communities.     

Understanding forest transition in the Philippines: main farm-level factors influencing smallholder’s capacity and intention to plant native timber trees

The ‘when, where and how’ of decisions by smallholder upland farmers to plant trees as part of their use of natural, human and capital resources needs to be understood if policy support is to result in actual recovery of tree cover as part of a ‘forest transition’ trajectory. In large parts of the Philippines the turning point may be close. Data on resource access and tree planting decisions were gathered from a household survey, with a total of 148 respondents in four rural communities in Leyte Province in Central Philippines. Data were analysed using logistic regression analysis. Household-level results reveal that the outcomes of the decision-making processes primarily depend on the availability of land and access to remaining forest resources rather than socio-cultural or economic factors. The total area of land and number of parcels managed by the household plus security of land tenure through ownership was found to have a statistically significant effect on farmers’ decision to plant native timber trees. Access to surrounding natural forest is negatively associated with farmer tree planting.     

Potential of Community-Based Forest Management to Mitigate Climate Change in the Philippines

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is the principal strategy in managing inhabited ‘forest land’ in the Philippines. It involves the participation of local communities in various forestry activities to achieve sustainable forestry, advance social justice and improve socioeconomic welfare, and promote a stable and healthy environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites to mitigate climate change. The incorporation of trees in farms and landscapes has led to enhanced carbon storage and sequestration. Half a million hectares of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites in the Philippines are estimated to store 25 MtC while sequestering 2.7 MtC annually. Lessons are drawn from three carbon sequestration projects under development using CBFM as the main approach. Income from carbon credits is not sufficient to recover the cost of tree planting. The transaction costs of forestry CDM projects are substantial and could prove to be the greatest barrier to project fruition. Government institutions must find ways to encourage project developers by simplifying rules and regulations for forestry carbon projects. Forest definition must be assessed. Project developers and the government could also explore the voluntary carbon market which is more flexible than the CDM market. Policy and technical studies must be conducted to ascertain the potential of the REDD for CBFM sites in the country.     

Ecosystem management and nonindustrial private forest landowners in Washington State,USA

Washington’s non-industrial private forest (NIPF) landowners control 1.2 M ha, or nearly 20%, of the forestland in Washington State. Results of a mail survey suggest that educated and informed NIPF landowners are more likely to show interest in ecosystem-based management programs. NIPF respondents in Washington State indicated an appreciation for the temporal vision and landscape perspective crucial to understanding the foundation of ecosystem management. It is concluded that public agencies need to involve private landowners in ecosystem-based projects by using a more ‘place’ based cross-boundary management approach. NIPF landowners must be actively involved in the decision-making so that the process, for them, is one of self-governance. Providing landowners with opportunities for education and assistance may offer the best prospects for achieving ecosystem management objectives across diverse ownerships     

Governance Concepts and their Application in Forest Policy Initiatives from Global to Local Levels

In recent decades the concept of ‘governance’ as interdependent coordination of actors as well as the normative concept of ‘good governance’ have increasingly influenced international forest policy, to varying degrees. Using the three dimensions of multi-actor, multi-sector and multi-level governance to analyse key aspects of governance in the follow-up of global policy after the UNCED conference in 1992, this paper shows that ‘multi-actor governance’ has received considerable attention in international forest policy, mainly through promoting national forest programs. Global forest policy initiatives were less able to develop concepts to address and improve ‘multi-sector governance’ and ‘multi-level governance’, although these two dimensions of governance are particularly relevant for local levels. A number of major international forest policy initiatives, both public and private, have also focused on improving various dimensions of ‘good governance’. A review of the degree to which these international governmental initiatives have been transposed and applied at the local or regional level reveals a major gap between concepts and forest policy initiatives developed and promoted at international and national levels and their application at the regional and local levels. This calls for better concepts addressing in particular the ‘multi-level’ dimension of governance in order to improve connectivity between these levels. A range of governance change approaches can be applied, including adjusting modes of interaction, instruments and institutions.

Impacts of participatory forest management on forest conditions: Evidences from Gebradima Forest,southwest Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

This study examines a participatory forest management program and its impacts on forest conditions in Gebradima Forest, southwest Ethiopia. Vegetation data were collected from both participatory forest management (PFM) and nonparticipatory forest management (non-PFM) forest blocks. A total of 54 plots (27 from each forest block) measuring 20 m × 20 m were employed to collect species composition and structural data. Results indicated that a total of 51 different woody plant species (49 at PFM and 43 at non-PFM blocks), representing 31 families were recorded, with 41 species were shared for both forest sites. Species diversity and evenness were higher in the forest with PFM (H´ = 3.29, E = .85) compared to the forest without PFM (H´ = 2.97, E = .79). The overall mean values of tree/shrub and seedling density per hectare, diameter class (≤ 20 cm) were also significantly (p < .05) higher in PFM forest than non-PFM forests. However, no significant variations were observed in sapling density per hectare and basal area between the two studied forest blocks. It can be concluded that PFM had a positive effect on forest conditions compared with a similar forest without PFM. Hence, it is important to scaling up PFM in neighboring forests.     

Contribution of participatory forest management towards conservation and rehabilitation of dry Afromontane forests and its implications for carbon management in the tropical Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia

Participatory forest management (PFM) has been applied as an approach to create a framework for collaborative forest management between local communities and government forestry agencies. This study was designed to assess the contribution of PFM approach in improving forest status in the Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia. Landsat satellite imageries of four years were used to evaluate the trends and rate of deforestation before and after PFM interventions. Socio-economic data were collected from sample household surveys, key participants, focus group discussions, and field observations. The results showed that there was high rate of deforestation before PFM intervention as forestland has decreased by 19% (2531 ha) between 1990 and 2000. However, after the PFM intervention (2000–2016), the forest cover has increased by 247 ha (2.2%). During this period, net 1016 ha of shrub-lands were converted into forestland owing to significant forest regeneration. In addition, most sampled households (94% and 96% from lower and upper altitudes, respectively) perceived that PFM had significantly contributed to improve forest regeneration in their locality. This study revealed that PFM can serve as a stepping stone for carbon financing mechanisms to reduce greenhouses emission and enhance carbon sinks via forest resources.     

Exploratory multi-criteria analysis in sustainability impact assessment of forest-wood chains: the example of a regional case study in Baden–Württemberg

Sustainability impact assessment (SIA) is a prospective, integrated assessment approach for potential impacts of policy actions. Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) can be used to facilitate a multi-indicator evaluation in this framework in order to foster rational and transparent decision-making processes for SIA. Based on the outputs of the EFORWOOD project, this paper presents an exploratory MCA to a regional forest-wood chain (FWC) in Baden–Württemberg. This assessment is based on a set of sustainability indicators at process level for a baseline year 2005, reference futures ‘A1’ and ‘B2’ following the definition of the IPCC and a bio-energy scenario implanted into the reference future ‘A1’. The indicator values were calculated by the process tool ToSIA. It is demonstrated how time steps for parts of the regional FWC (forest management, harvest and transport to the mill gate) can be evaluated, as well as the outcomes of different scenarios for a time period. For this purpose, a novel software tool, ToSIA-MCA, is used to calculate relative sustainability impact rating (SIR) based on a PROMETHEE II algorithm. Further, we performed uncertainty analysis to test the stability of ranking results in the absence of real preference information with regard to uncertainty in indicator data. By comparing different indicator weighting patterns, the sensitivity of SIR calculation was further tested. The exploratory MCA outcomes are critically evaluated against the background of assumptions, and data used in the regional case, and an outlook is given on the importance to gain stronger stakeholder involvement in real-life applications.     

Community-based management of rural pine forests in a suburban village of Hiroshima prefecture, western Japan

Community-based management of a rural pine forest in a small suburban community, was examined and assessed. In particular, the study focused on theMatsutake project, which is an initiative seeking to help in the maintenance of a communal pine forest via the cultivation of theMatsutake mushroom by a local seniors’ group. From an ecological perspective, the maintenance work is found to be effective in the conservation and regeneration of the pine forest ecosystem, including its species diversity, especially in the herb layer. From a sociological perspective, theMatsutake project presented a valuable opportunity to strengthen connections not only within the seniors’ group, but also between senior citizens and other generations. However, subsidies for the project have tended to be gradually reduced, because it is difficult for non-involved community members to appreciate the benefits of the project. For the project to be sustainable, more widespread participation of the community is essential. A framework for wider analysis of local participatory forest management is also deemed necessary.     

Unpacking the impacts of ‘participatory’ forestry policies: Evidence from Kenya

We evaluate the livelihoods of member and non-members of Community Forestry Associations under Kenya's participatory forest management (PFM) programme. We use propensity score matching of households based on recall based data from before implementation of PFM from 286 households and comparison of current incomes (2012), as well as review of records and interviews. Results reveal that members have higher total and forest-related incomes than non-members and indicate that impacts derive from labour and market opportunities supported by donor institutions, more than from differential access to forest products. In terms of governance the Kenya Forest Service largely remains in control of decision-making. Thus, PFM resembles Integrated Conservation and Development Project (ICDP) approaches. We conclude that current forest governance approaches in Kenya appear not to support participation in practice. Further, we conclude that impact evaluations must examine both outcomes and participatory forestry to provide meaningful policy evidence.     

What rights and benefits? The implementation of participatory forest management in Kenya: The case of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve

The study espoused the access analytical framework to investigate how introduction of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) in Kenya has changed the various actors’ ability to benefit from the forest resources of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve. Data collected through key informant interviews, and a household survey showed that implementation of PFM has triggered new income opportunities for forest adjacent communities in seedling production and beekeeping. However, PFM bestowed no real decision-making powers to the established Community Forest Associations (CFAs) over important forest resources such as timber and firewood. Members of the local communities and other actors have continued to access these resources through various structural and relational means, in the same way as before the introduction of PFM. Further, it is documented that PFM has introduced additional burdens on the local communities, especially the poorest households, as a result of increased enforcement of rules. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the PFM policy in Kenya, in its current form, is unlikely to realize its dual objectives of forest conservation and livelihood enhancement. To attain them would require a further devolution of rights to the CFAs.     

The performance of community organisers in promotion of community forestry in Leyte Province,Philippines

A study was conducted to assess the role and effectiveness of community organisers in supporting the development of people’s organisations in achieving community-based forest management objectives in Leyte Province Philippines. Community organisers were found to be effective in forming people’s organisations (POs), motivating people to participate in voluntary activities organised by POs and encouraging cohesiveness among PO members. Community organisers manage to raise the level of environmental awareness and knowledge of members of people’s organisations, develop leadership interest and skills, create various livelihood opportunities and provide direction and facilitate the establishment of large tree plantations. However, the short duration of community organisers’ contracts (typically two years) is insufficient to establish mature and cohesive POs prepared to assume management on their own, including the management of tree plantations. Further, lack of training and funding support, low wages, delayed payment of salaries and limited time to work with people’s organisations, as well as the pressure to produce tangible outputs such the establishment of large tree plantations, prevents them from placing greater emphasis on the development and empowerment of the people.     

Maple Sugar Bush Management and Forest Biodiversity Conservation in Eastern Ontario, Canada

As in many parts of the world, rural and forest-dependent communities in Ontario are struggling with a variety of economic and demographic challenges. Ontario government ministries are seeking to enhance rural sustainable development while at the same time maintaining forest habitat and preventing forest biodiversity decline. Commercial maple sugar bushes, which in Eastern Ontario are typically family owned and operated, have the potential to play an important role in biodiversity conservation and habitat protection, while at the same time contributing to sustainable development. Existing research has shown the social and economic benefits of small scale maple sugar bushes, but room remains for greater study of the environmental impacts, particularly in terms of forest biodiversity. In this study, woodlot management practices on twenty-two sugar bushes in Eastern Ontario were compared against established forest biodiversity conservation guidelines, using information obtained through detailed interviews with operators. Sugar bush operators reported the presence of many important habitats on their properties. The interview results show that many standard sugar bush management practices are consistent with biodiversity conservation principles. Operators were found to be receptive to biodiversity conservation ideals, and could enhance their contribution to the provincial government’s official biodiversity strategy with additional guidance, incentives, and formal planning. The findings suggest that through sound management and planning, small scale commercial sugar bush operations generally can be made environmentally sustainable, and become important components in broader rural development strategies.     

Protected Area Management in the Tropics

SUMMARY

This paper provides a brief overview of some key experiences from protected area management projects in Africa and Asia, to help set the scene for the new generation of transboundary protected areas. Particular attention is given to projects attempting to support protected area management by improving the welfare of local people, a key component of many transboundary protected area initiatives.

During the 1990s the funding available to support protected areas in the tropics increased significantly, leading to a proliferation of Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) and similar approaches. But many of these attempts to broaden access to conservation benefits by establishing tangible links between protected area management and economic development among local communities have been based on unrealistic assumptions and have struggled to be effective. As a result, future international funding for similar initiatives may be at risk.