The phenol red thread tear test in large Psittaciformes

OBJECTIVE: To develop a standard method for measuring tear production in large Psittaciformes using the phenol red thread (PRT) tear test. To establish mean PRT tear test values in clinically normal pet birds and to assess the reproducibility of the test. ANIMALS: Two geographically distinct populations of healthy, large Psittaciformes (pilot study and study population). Species groups include: cockatoo (17), macaw (22), Amazon (10), African gray (1), eclectus (1) and pionus (1). PROCEDURE: The PRT was placed under the upper eyelid and both eyelids were held closed throughout the test. The PRT tear test was repeated after 2 months in the pilot study and after approximately 5 min in the study population. RESULTS: The mean PRT tear test values for the pilot study were OD=28.2 mm/15 s (+/- 6.3 mm), OS=24.1 mm/15 s (+/- 6.6 mm) and OD=25.4 mm/15 s (+/- 3.3 mm), OS=25.5 mm/15 s (+/- 5.2 mm), for the first and second visits respectively. The mean PRT tear test value for the study population was: OD=19.8 mm/15 s (+/- 4.3 mm), OS=20.1 (+/- 3.9 mm) and OD=20.0 mm/15 s (+/- 4.5 mm), OS=19.1 mm/15 s (+/- 3.3 mm), for the first and second tests respectively. There was poor repeatability between tests. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that the PRT tear test is a practical method for measuring tear production in large Psittaciformes, although adaptations to the established diagnostic method are necessary to overcome some anatomical differences present in birds. Good reproducibility of the PRT tear test could not be demonstrated in a clinically normal population of birds but geographic location appears to significantly influence results.     

Radiographic anatomy of the cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) axial and appendicular skeleton

Cockatiels are popular pets. Still, despite medical and surgical relevance, the radiographic anatomy of the cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) skeleton, like that of different wild and exotic bird species, has seldom been described. This study set out to describe the radiographic anatomy of the cockatiel skeleton. Twelve adult male and nine adult female specimens were radiographed using a digital X-ray system and different views. The radiographic anatomy of these birds was similar to that of other Psittacidae. However, some particularities inherent to the target species were detected, such as the presence of four flexion zones in the skull (craniofacial, nasal, jugal arch and palatine), complete bony orbit comprising a suborbital arch, 34–38 vertebrae (10 or 11 cervical, 8 or 9 thoracic, 9 or 10 lumbosacral, 5 or 6 caudal vertebrae and a pygostyle comprising 2 fused vertebrae), eight or nine pairs of ribs and a notarium made up of fused T2–T6 vertebrae. Poor radiopacity of the notarium, ribs and respective uncinate processes, and synsacral vertebrae made demarcation of these structures difficult. The appendicular skeleton of the cockatiel was very similar to that of other Psittacidae, and there were no gender-related differences.     

A review of orbital and intracranial magnetic resonance imaging in 79 canine and 13 feline patients (2004-2010)

Objective To review the distribution of orbital and intracranial disease in canine and feline patients undergoing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) following referral to a veterinary ophthalmologist and to correlate results of MRI with pathologic conditions including neoplasia, suspected optic neuritis (ON) and orbital cellulitis. Recognized and emerging imaging techniques are reviewed. Procedure Medical records of 79 canine and 13 feline patients were reviewed. Results Neoplasia was diagnosed in 53/92 (57.6%) of patients. The most prevalent types of neoplasia were carcinoma (16/53, 30.1%), sarcoma (11/53, 20.8%), lymphoma (8/53, 15.1%) and presumptive meningioma (9/53, 17.0%). Carcinomas and sarcomas were characterized by bony lysis and intracranial/sinonasal extension. Lymphoma was generally unilateral, less invasive and originated from the ventromedial orbit. Intracranial masses representing presumptive meningiomas frequently exhibited a ‘dural tail’ sign. Diagnosis of suspected ON was made in 13 of 92 (14.1%) patients. Results of MRI in patients with suspected ON included unilateral optic nerve hyperintensity (3/13, 23.0%), bilateral optic nerve hyperintensity (1/13, 7.7%) and optic chiasmal hyperintensity (3/13, 23.0%). Seven suspected ON patients demonstrated intracranial multifocal patchy contrast enhancement (7/13, 53.8%). Diagnosis of orbital cellulitis was made in 12/92 (13.0%) patients. Conclusions Orbital neoplasia was the most common pathologic condition detected. Essential Roentgen characteristics are helpful when diagnosing pathologic processes and providing prognoses in cases of orbital or intracranial disease. Magnetic resonance imaging comprises an important diagnostic component in cases of suspected ON. Emerging contrast and functional MRI techniques as well as SI data may increase our ability to characterize disease processes.     

A Macro‐Anatomical Investigation of the Some Skull Bones of Nehring's Blind Mole Rats (Spalacidae: Nannospalax nehringi)

This study was aimed to demonstrate the specific anatomical features of the skull bones of Nehring's blind mole rats. Eight skulls, belonging to animals of both sexes, were used. The occipital squama contributed to the formation of the caudal portion of the skull roof. The foramen magnum was quite large. The external occipital crest was present only in the males. The parietal bones formed the middle portion of the skull roof together with the well‐developed inter‐parietal bones. The zygomatic process of the temporal bone formed the zygomatic arch by extending to the temporal process of the zygomatic bone. The zygomatic process of the frontal bone and the frontal process of the zygomatic bone laterally bordered the orbit. There was a single septal process of the nasal bone. Each ramus of the mandibula had four processes. The mandibular ramus had an angular process on its caudal rim, which extended dorsolaterally. The dorsal free end of the mandibular ramus possessed a coronoid process. In the back, there were two other processes, situated medially and laterally. The medially situated process was referred to as a condylar process, and the laterally situated process was referred to as an alveolar process. The alveolar process detected on the mandibular ramus has not been reported in any rodent species, other than those of the family Spalacidae. Blind mole rats can be a real eye‐opener for evolutionary science. The burrowing rodents are key to answering a controversial question about how new species arise.     

Magnetic resonance imaging of the canine and feline eye, orbit, and optic nerves and its clinical application

The purpose of this study was to investigate magnetic resonance imaging of the normal canine and feline eye, orbit and optic nerves using proton density-weighted, T₁-weighted and T₂-weighted images. The clinical application of magnetic resonance imaging in veterinary ophthalmology was also investigated using three clinical cases: a feline orbital melanoma, a feline optic nerve meningioma, and a canine orbital fibrosarcoma. Gadolinium diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid enhanced magnetic resonance imaging was completed on the case of feline optic nerve meningioma. Magnetic resonance imaging provides excellent anatomical detail of the canine and feline eye, orbit, and optic nerves due to its superior soft tissue contrast, and its multiplanar and multislice imaging capability. Therefore it is of value for diagnostic imaging of some ophthalmic and neuro-ophthalmic conditions in the dog and cat.     

Descriptions of anatomical differences between skulls and mandibles of Equus zebra and E. burchelli from Southern Africa

The external anatomical differences between the skulls and mandibles of 10 mountain zebras Equus zebra and 10 plains zebras E. burchelli of both sexes were studied. The nomenclature used conforms to Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria (1983). Eleven structural differences are described for the first time and illustrated, viz., outline of the foramen magnum; length of the alar canal; comparative presence of the For. alare parvum; proportions of the mastoid process of the temporal bone; shape and development of the pterygoid crest; notch at the rostral end of the facial crest in E. burchelli; different inclination of the caudal end of the zygomatic arch; shape and length of the retroarticular process; relative size of the supraorbital foramina; presence of incisive canals in E. zebra; difference in the junction of the interalveolar border of the mandible with the alveolar border of the first cheek tooth. If three or more differences are used for identification, it should be possible to train any worker to distinguish between the skulls of these two species.     

Isolation,molecular identification,and phylogenetic evaluation of Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from pigeon lofts,Psittaciformes, and Passeriformes in Ahvaz,Iran

Cryptococcus neoformans, the main pathogen in immunocompromised patients, is a ubiquitous free-living fungus that can be isolated from avian excreta, soils, and plant material. This study was carried out to determine the infection rate of pigeon lofts, Passeriformes, and Psittaciformes in Ahvaz, the capital of Khuzestan province in Iran and to determine varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans). The 80 samples were collected from pigeon lofts. Also, 163 feces of captive birds (Passeriformes and Psittaciformes) which kept in Ahvaz pet shops, and the 70 cloacal swabs of pet birds (Passeriformes and psittaciformes) referring to the department of avian medicine (the faculty of veterinary medicine of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz) were analyzed. The samples were directly inoculated on niger seed agar (NSA) and also enriched in brain heart infusion broth and then inoculated on NSA. Dark brown colonies suspected to C. neoformans subcultured on saborouds dextrose agar and pure cultures subjected to molecular (polymerase chain reaction (PCR)) diagnosis. For detection of C. neoformans, primer sets that targeting the CNLAC1 gene were selected and nested PCR was conducted. For identification of C. neoformans varieties, a primer set targeting the STR1 gene was selected. For more accurate confirmation, the purified PCR products of some isolates were also sequenced, and based on the gene sequences, all of the isolates belonged to C. neoformans variety grubii (var. grubii)(serotype A). Totally 16 out of 80 pigeon samples (20%) were contaminated with C. neoformans. The results in pigeons disclosed a 98.64% identity when compared with other strains of C. neoformans (CN1525, T4, and T1) which were previously deposited in GenBank from Italy and Thailand. Also, 21 out of 233 samples from Psittaciformes (9.01%) were contaminated with C. neoformans. The results in Psittaciformes disclosed a 99.7% identity when compared with other strains of C. neoformans (TIMM1313, IFM5882, CN1525, etc.) which were previously deposited in GenBank from Japan and Italy, etc. In the present study, the samples belonging to the passerine order were free of C. neoformans infection. According to the results, C. neoformans is prevalent in pigeon flocks and pet birds including Psittaciformes in the Ahvaz area, and should be considered by pigeon and captive bird breeders, veterinarians, and public health organizations in Ahvaz. The cryptococcus species isolated from captive birds and pigeons could be potential pathogens in humans.     

Modified Lateral Orbitotomy for Removal of Orbital Neoplasms in Two Dogs

A simplified lateral orbitotomy is described that decreases surgical time and lessens tissue dissection, yet maintains the exposure to the orbit provided by other orbitotomy techniques. The approach involves cutting the orbital ligament, incising the temporalis aponeurosis from the dorsal zygomatic arch, making parallel zygomatic arch osteotomies, and reflecting the zygomatic arch ventrally. Closure of the wound involves wiring the zygomatic arch back into place. This orbitotomy procedure provides excellent exposure for removal or biopsy of orbital masses. The use of this technique for surgical excision of orbital masses in two dogs, one with an adenoma of the third eyelid gland and one with an orbital fibrosarcoma, and their subsequent management is described.     

Numbers of dogs, cats, birds, and exotic animals in veterinary practices in the Netherlands 1994-2005 and possible consequences for the veterinary curriculum

The species of pets owned in the Netherlands are constantly changing, and it is important that veterinary practitioners have information about the number and species of pets presented in veterinary practice. Using the same methodology as in 1994, we determined the relative importance of the various pet species in 2005 and compared these data with those for 1994. The most notable findings were a 25% increase in the number of birds and exotic animals seen in small and large animal practices (from about 10% to about 12.5%), a doubling of the number of birds and tripling of the number of pigeons seen in mixed practices, a doubling of the number of reptiles seen in small animal practices, and a 10-fold increase in the number of fish seen in veterinary practices in general. There was a significant decrease in the proportion of cats (from 46% to 40.7%) and an increase in the proportion of dogs (from 44% to 46.7%). These trends in veterinary practice consultations did not parallel those seen in pet ownership. The increase in the number of birds (especially pigeons), reptiles, and fish seen in veterinary practice emphasizes the need to pay attention to these species in the standard companion animal curriculum.     

Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Anatomy of the Normal Orbit and Eye of the Horse

Traumatic and infectious diseases of the eye and orbit can occur in horses. For diagnosis and monitoring of such diseases, medical imaging is useful including computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The aim of the current study was to describe CT and MRI anatomy of the equine orbit and ocular globe. The heads from four adult horses were scanned with a 6‐slice Emotion 6 CT (Siemens, Erlangen), and a 3.0 Tesla Siemens Verio 6 MRI using T1 and T2‐weighted sequences. To validate CT and MR reference images, these were compared with anatomical models and gross anatomical sections. The bony limits of the orbital cavity, the relationship of the orbit with sinuses and foramina of the skull were well identified by CT. MRI was useful to observe soft tissues and was able to identify adnexae of the ocular globe (eyelids, periorbital fat, extraocular muscles, lacrymal and tarsal glands). Although MRI was able to identify all components of the eye (including the posterior chamber), it could not differentiate sclera from choroid and retina. The only nerve identified was the optic nerve. Vessels were not seen in this series of cadaver heads. This study showed that CT and MRI are useful techniques to image the equine orbit and eye that can have clinical applications.     

勺鸡、石鸡和天鹅血液生理指标的比较研究

采用常规方法对人工饲养的3种鸟类(勺鸡、石鸡、天鹅)血液中的血红蛋白、红细胞沉降率、红细胞平均体积、红细胞比容、血细胞数及白细胞分类6项生理指标进行了测定。结果表明：天鹅的红细胞总数、血红蛋白含量、血小板总数、红细胞比容、红细胞体积最大,勺鸡次之,石鸡最小；红细胞沉降率石鸡最大,勺鸡次之,天鹅最小；白细胞总数及各类白细胞所占的比例3种鸟类之间差别不明显,白细胞体积天鹅最大,石鸡次之,勺鸡最小。种属不同是导致3种鸟血液生理常值差别的主要原因。     

A study on morphology and morphometric parameters on skull of the Bardhoka autochthonous sheep breed in Kosovo

In this study, we aim to investigate the skull of Bardhoka sheep, which is the native breed of Kosovo by utilising normal morphometric methods. Differences between male and female were also statistically analysed. Further, the parameters that can be used in gender discrimination were also analysed. The statistical analysis was based on a sample of 24 adult skulls of Bardhoka breed with 12 female and 12 male skulls. Altogether, 31 different measurements were taken morphologically and 7 different indices were applied. Except for the measurement's values of the orbit, measurement's values of length of the cheek tooth row and the measurement's values of height of the foramen magnum, all the measured values of males were higher than females. Nasal index, cranium index and skull index values were statistically significant between both genders. It is envisaged that the findings of this study will motivate and assist other comparative studies with other autochthonous sheep and goat breeds found in the Dukagjini region or in clinical veterinary practice and even in zooarchaeology.     

Discovery of a new avian bornavirus genotype in estrildid finches (Estrildidae) in Germany

Avian bornaviruses (ABV) are known to be the causative agent of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) in parrots and their relatives (Psittaciformes). A broad range of ABV genotypes has been detected not only in psittacine birds, but also in other avian species including canary birds (Serinus canaria forma domestica) and Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata f. dom.), which are both members of the order songbirds (Passeriformes).During this study 286 samples collected from captive and wild birds of various passerine species in different parts of Germany were screened for the presence of ABV. Interestingly, only three ABV-positive samples were identified by RT-PCR. They originated from one yellow-winged pytilia (Pytilia hypogrammica) and two black-rumped waxbills (Estrilda troglodytes) from a flock of captive estrildid finches in Saxony. The ABV isolates detected here were only distantly related to ABV isolates found in passerine species in Germany and Japan and form a new genotype tentatively called ABV-EF (for “estrildid finches”).     

Serotyping of US isolates of Chlamydophila psittaci from domestic and wild birds.

The identities of chlamydial strains, which can infect a given host, are important to know for disease prognosis, disease control, and epidemiology. The microimmunofluorescence test (MIFT) was used with a panel of 14 serovar-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to serotype 150 chlamydial isolates from domestic and wild birds. The isolates were obtained from birds submitted to diagnostic laboratories or during investigation of outbreaks. The 150 US isolates included 96 from the order Psittaciformes, 14 isolates from the order Columbiformes, 2 from the order Passeriformes, 16 from the order Galliformes, 12 from the order Struthioniformes, and 3 from the order Falconiformes. A total of 93, or 97%, of the Psittaciformes isolates were of serovar A; 11, or 79%, of the Columbiformes isolates were of serovar B; 64% of the Galliformes isolates were of serovar D, and all the Struthioniformes isolates were of serovar E. The 3 Falconiformes isolates did not react with any of the MAbs to the avian and mammalian isolates and are presumed to represent a new strain. The results show that specific chlamydial strains are usually associated with certain types of birds and that some serovars may be unusually virulent for certain species of birds. The MIFT using serovar-specific MAbs provides a rapid method to serotype new isolates, making it a useful system for epidemiological studies.     

Orbital abscess bacterial isolates and in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in dogs and cats

Objective To determine bacterial populations, in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility patterns, and sources of microorganisms for dogs and cats with orbital abscess. Animals studied In total, 34 dogs and 7 cats with orbital abscess participated in the study. Procedure Medical records of dogs and cats with a clinical diagnosis of orbital abscess, confirmed by cytologic or histopathologic evaluation of orbital specimens, were reviewed from the years 1990 to 2007. Animal signalment, presumptive source of microorganisms and mechanism of orbital introduction, bacterial isolates, and aerobic bacterial in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility test results were recorded. Percentages of susceptible aerobic bacterial isolates were compared among antimicrobials. Results Twenty dogs and five cats had positive culture results. The most frequent bacterial genera isolated from dogs were Staphylococcus, Escherichia, Bacteroides, Clostridium and Pasteurella. The most frequent bacterial genera isolated from cats were Pasteurella and Bacteroides. Aerobic bacterial isolates from dogs had the highest percentage of susceptibility to amikacin, ceftiofur, gentamicin, imipenem, ticarcillin and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole. Aerobic bacterial isolates from dogs had the lowest percentage of susceptibility to ampicillin, clindamycin, erythromycin and penicillin. Antimicrobial resistance was uncommon among feline aerobic bacterial isolates. The most commonly identified routes of orbital bacteria introduction were extension from adjacent anatomical structures, penetrating exogenous trauma, and foreign bodies. Conclusions Mixed aerobic and anaerobic bacterial infections of the orbit occur commonly in dogs and cats. On the basis of aerobic and anaerobic bacterial isolates and in vitro susceptibility testing of aerobic bacterial isolates, cephalosporins, extended‐spectrum penicillins, potentiated‐penicillins and carbapenems are recommended for initial antimicrobial therapy of orbital abscess in dogs and cats.     

Comparative efficacy of flubendazole and a commercially available herbal wormer against natural infections of Ascaridia galli, Heterakis gallinarum and intestinal Capillaria spp. in chickens

The efficacy of a commercially available flubendazole-based product and a commercially available herbal product were compared against three species of helminth parasites of chickens: Ascaridia galli, Heterakis gallinarum and Capillaria spp. A total of 48 naturally infected chickens were used in the study with 16 birds in each of three treatment groups (untreated control; flubendazole; and a herbal product). One bird from each treatment group was necropsied on Day 0 prior to first treatment to confirm the parasite species present in the birds. Treatments were administered as labelled and the 45 remaining birds were necropsied on Day 12 and worm counts performed. Average worm counts in the two treated groups were compared to the untreated controls to calculate efficacy. Flubendazole (Group A) achieved an overall efficacy of 99.4% for the three parasite species. The herbal product (Group B) achieved efficacies ranging from less than zero to 11.6% for the three parasites, with worm counts not significantly different to the untreated controls. At present, commercially available herbal products claiming anthelmintic properties do not require licencing as veterinary medicinal products (Directive 2004/28/EC: see Article 17 and 33-38) and thus are not required to meet specific efficacy thresholds. Products which do not appear to deliver acceptable anthelmintic efficacy, are obviously a concern from many aspects but specifically from an animal welfare perspective.