The RAD9 gene controls the cell cycle response to DNA damage in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Cell division is arrested in many organisms in response to DNA damage. Examinations of the genetic basis for this response in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae indicate that the RAD9 gene product is essential for arrest of cell division induced by DNA damage. Wild-type haploid cells irradiated with x-rays either arrest or delay cell division in the G2 phase of the cell cycle. Irradiated G1 and M phase haploid cells arrest irreversibly in G2 and die, whereas irradiated G2 phase haploid cells delay in G2 for a time proportional to the extent of damage before resuming cell division. In contrast, irradiated rad9 cells in any phase of the cycle do not delay cell division in G2, but continue to divide for several generations and die. However, efficient DNA repair can occur in irradiated rad9 cells if irradiated cells are blocked for several hours in G2 by treatment with a microtubule poison. The RAD9-dependent response detects potentially lethal DNA damage and causes arrest of cells in G2 until such damage is repaired.     

Rapid destruction of human Cdc25A in response to DNA damage

To protect genome integrity and ensure survival, eukaryotic cells exposed to genotoxic stress cease proliferating to provide time for DNA repair. Human cells responded to ultraviolet light or ionizing radiation by rapid, ubiquitin- and proteasome-dependent protein degradation of Cdc25A, a phosphatase that is required for progression from G1 to S phase of the cell cycle. This response involved activated Chk1 protein kinase but not the p53 pathway, and the persisting inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation of Cdk2 blocked entry into S phase and DNA replication. Overexpression of Cdc25A bypassed this mechanism, leading to enhanced DNA damage and decreased cell survival. These results identify specific degradation of Cdc25A as part of the DNA damage checkpoint mechanism and suggest how Cdc25A overexpression in human cancers might contribute to tumorigenesis.     

ATM activation by DNA double-strand breaks through the Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex

The ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase signals the presence of DNA double-strand breaks in mammalian cells by phosphorylating proteins that initiate cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, and DNA repair. We show that the Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 (MRN) complex acts as a double-strand break sensor for ATM and recruits ATM to broken DNA molecules. Inactive ATM dimers were activated in vitro with DNA in the presence of MRN, leading to phosphorylation of the downstream cellular targets p53 and Chk2. ATM autophosphorylation was not required for monomerization of ATM by MRN. The unwinding of DNA ends by MRN was essential for ATM stimulation, which is consistent with the central role of single-stranded DNA as an evolutionarily conserved signal for DNA damage.     

53BP1, a mediator of the DNA damage checkpoint

53BP1 binds to the tumor suppressor protein p53 and has a potential role in DNA damage responses. We used small interfering RNA (siRNA) directed against 53BP1 in mammalian cells to demonstrate that 53BP1 is a key transducer of the DNA damage checkpoint signal. 53BP1 was required for p53 accumulation, G2-M checkpoint arrest, and the intra-S-phase checkpoint in response to ionizing radiation. 53BP1 played a partially redundant role in phosphorylation of the downstream checkpoint effector proteins Brca1 and Chk2 but was required for the formation of Brca1 foci in a hierarchical branched pathway for the recruitment of repair and signaling proteins to sites of DNA damage.     

A p53 amino-terminal nuclear export signal inhibited by DNA damage-induced phosphorylation

The p53 protein is present in low amounts in normally growing cells and is activated in response to physiological insults. MDM2 regulates p53 either through inhibiting p53's transactivating function in the nucleus or by targeting p53 degradation in the cytoplasm. We identified a previously unknown nuclear export signal (NES) in the amino terminus of p53, spanning residues 11 to 27 and containing two serine residues phosphorylated after DNA damage, which was required for p53 nuclear export in colloboration with the carboxyl-terminal NES. Serine-15-phosphorylated p53 induced by ultraviolet irradiation was not exported. Thus, DNA damage-induced phosphorylation may achieve optimal p53 activation by inhibiting both MDM2 binding to, and the nuclear export of, p53.     

马尾松树皮提取物体外抑制人大肠癌细胞生长机理初探

为探讨马尾松树皮提取物(PMBE)体外抑制大肠癌LoVo细胞生长的作用特点和机理,通过MTT、显微镜术、凝胶电泳和流式细胞术,研究PMBE抑制LoVo细胞生长的特点,运用免疫组化和RT-PCR探究相关分子机理。结果表明:PMBE时间-剂量依赖地抑制LoVo细胞的体外生长;PMBE处理后,流式细胞检测发现LoVo细胞周期阻滞于G1或S期,同时可检测到亚二倍体峰的出现;荧光镜检和透射电镜观察可看到LoVo细胞的核皱缩、边集甚或碎裂,以及有凋亡小体形成,其基因组经过凝胶电泳呈现典型的梯形Ladder;RT-PCR和免疫组化结果显示PMBE处理可上调LoVo细胞中p53和p21基因的转录效率,并下调Bcl-2的蛋白表达量。说明PMBE通过上调p53和p21的表达量阻滞细胞周期、下调Bcl-2的表达量诱导细胞凋亡的双重机制,抑制LoVo细胞的体外生长,可供进一步探索相关信号传导通路参考。     

Direct activation of the ATM protein kinase by the Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1 complex

The complex containing the Mre11, Rad50, and Nbs1 proteins (MRN) is essential for the cellular response to DNA double-strand breaks, integrating DNA repair with the activation of checkpoint signaling through the protein kinase ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated). We demonstrate that MRN stimulates the kinase activity of ATM in vitro toward its substrates p53, Chk2, and histone H2AX. MRN makes multiple contacts with ATM and appears to stimulate ATM activity by facilitating the stable binding of substrates. Phosphorylation of Nbs1 is critical for MRN stimulation of ATM activity toward Chk2, but not p53. Kinase-deficient ATM inhibits wild-type ATM phosphorylation of Chk2, consistent with the dominant-negative effect of kinase-deficient ATM in vivo.     

p53基因研究进展

转录调节因子p53作为一种抑癌基因,可诱导细胞生长阻滞,细胞凋亡,细胞分化以及DNA修复。但p53突变体可能会使野生型p53基因的抑癌功能失活,甚至发挥癌基因的功能。随着分子生物学技术的发展,人们对p53基因调控网络有很多新的认识。笔者就p53的调节通路以及在肿瘤治疗方面的新进展进行综述。     

Suppression of human colorectal carcinoma cell growth by wild-type p53

Mutations of the p53 gene occur commonly in colorectal carcinomas and the wild-type p53 allele is often concomitantly deleted. These findings suggest that the wild-type gene may act as a suppressor of colorectal carcinoma cell growth. To test this hypothesis, wild-type or mutant human p53 genes were transfected into human colorectal carcinoma cell lines. Cells transfected with the wild-type gene formed colonies five- to tenfold less efficiently than those transfected with a mutant p53 gene. In those colonies that did form after wild-type gene transfection, the p53 sequences were found to be deleted or rearranged, or both, and no exogenous p53 messenger RNA expression was observed. In contrast, transfection with the wild-type gene had no apparent effect on the growth of epithelial cells derived from a benign colorectal tumor that had only wild-type p53 alleles. Immunocytochemical techniques demonstrated that carcinoma cells expressing the wild-type gene did not progress through the cell cycle, as evidenced by their failure to incorporate thymidine into DNA. These studies show that the wild-type gene can specifically suppress the growth of human colorectal carcinoma cells in vitro and that an in vivo-derived mutation resulting in a single conservative amino acid substitution in the p53 gene product abrogates this suppressive ability.     

外泌体microRNA在猪成熟和闭锁卵泡中的表达差异及功能分析

【目的】通过分析成熟卵泡液外泌体（mature follicular fiuid Exosomes, mffEXs）和闭锁卵泡液外泌体（atretic follicular fiuid Exosomes, affEXs）miRNA的表达差异,探索卵泡液外泌体（EXs）miRNA在卵泡发育和闭锁过程中的调控作用。【方法】本研究通过抽提4—6 mm猪成熟发育和闭锁卵泡的卵泡液分离外泌体,进行粒径分析及Western Blot检测对EXs进行鉴定,接下来对特征性EXs携带的miRNA测序和功能富集分析,筛选关键信号通路和差异基因。最后,将mffEXs和affEXs作为添加剂进行颗粒细胞培养,利用Q-PCR检测技术分析关键基因的表达,验证两类卵泡液内EXs miRNA在卵泡发育中的调控功能。【结果】成功分离了mffEXs和affEXs,对比mffEXs测序结果,affEXs中有90个miRNA上调表达,220个miRNA下调表达,表明了卵泡液中的miRNA表达水平与调控卵泡发育有关;KEGG富集分析结果显示两类卵泡的差异信号通路主要集中在Ras、cAMP、P53和MAPK等信号通路,涉及调控卵母细胞发育、减数分裂以及颗粒细胞细胞周期等生物学功能。在闭锁卵泡中,上调表达的ssc-let-7a和ssc-miR-133a-3p分别潜在靶向调控细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶（CDK1）和胰岛素生长因子（IGF1）,抑制了G1和G2/M期的运转和类固醇激素代谢,促使颗粒细胞周期运转受阻和颗粒细胞凋亡,引起卵泡闭锁的发生;下调的ssc-miR-21-5p潜在靶向肿瘤抑癌基因（P53）,抑制细胞周期运转,促使颗粒细胞凋亡。在体外培养的颗粒细胞中分别添加mffEXs和affEXs,Q-PCR结果显示CDK1在mffEXs中显著上调表达,而P53显著下调表达,表明了测序分析结果的可靠性。这些结果均显示了affEXs中miRNA表达水平的变化促使颗粒细胞凋亡和细胞周期阻滞,引起卵泡闭锁。【结论】猪affEXs携带miRNA增加了对CDK1、IGF1和P53的表达调控,抑制颗粒细胞细胞周期运转和类固醇激素代谢等信号通路,引起颗粒细胞凋亡,导致卵泡闭锁。     

Escherichia coli induces DNA double-strand breaks in eukaryotic cells

Transient infection of eukaryotic cells with commensal and extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli of phylogenetic group B2 blocks mitosis and induces megalocytosis. This trait is linked to a widely spread genomic island that encodes giant modular nonribosomal peptide and polyketide synthases. Contact with E. coli expressing this gene cluster causes DNA double-strand breaks and activation of the DNA damage checkpoint pathway, leading to cell cycle arrest and eventually to cell death. Discovery of hybrid peptide-polyketide genotoxins in E. coli will change our view on pathogenesis and commensalism and open new biotechnological applications.     

Noxa, a BH3-only member of the Bcl-2 family and candidate mediator of p53-induced apoptosis

A critical function of tumor suppressor p53 is the induction of apoptosis in cells exposed to noxious stresses. We report a previously unidentified pro-apoptotic gene, Noxa. Expression of Noxa induction in primary mouse cells exposed to x-ray irradiation was dependent on p53. Noxa encodes a Bcl-2 homology 3 (BH3)-only member of the Bcl-2 family of proteins; this member contains the BH3 region but not other BH domains. When ectopically expressed, Noxa underwent BH3 motif-dependent localization to mitochondria and interacted with anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members, resulting in the activation of caspase-9. We also demonstrate that blocking the endogenous Noxa induction results in the suppression of apoptosis. Noxa may thus represent a mediator of p53-dependent apoptosis.     

Radioresistance of cooperative function of carrier-specific lymphocytes in antihapten antibody responses

Transfer of lymphoid cells from strain-2 guinea pigs immunized to bovine gamma globulin into syngeneic recipients immunized with dinitrophenyl ovalbumin markedly enhances the secondary antidinitrophenyl response of the recipient to challenge with dinitrophenyl-bovine gamma globulin. This function of the carrier bovine gamma globulin-specific cells is resistant to irradiation with up to 5000 rads, although the capacity of the irradiated cell population to transfer immunologic memory for bovine gamma globulins or to be stimulated by antigen to synthesize DNA in vitro is abolished by this treatment.     

p53 dynamics control cell fate

Cells transmit information through molecular signals that often show complex dynamical patterns. The dynamic behavior of the tumor suppressor p53 varies depending on the stimulus; in response to double-strand DNA breaks, it shows a series of repeated pulses. Using a computational model, we identified a sequence of precisely timed drug additions that alter p53 pulses to instead produce a sustained p53 response. This leads to the expression of a different set of downstream genes and also alters cell fate: Cells that experience p53 pulses recover from DNA damage, whereas cells exposed to sustained p53 signaling frequently undergo senescence. Our results show that protein dynamics can be an important part of a signal, directly influencing cellular fate decisions.     

An oncogene-induced DNA damage model for cancer development

Of all types of DNA damage, DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) pose the greatest challenge to cells. One might have, therefore, anticipated that a sizable number of DNA DSBs would be incompatible with cell proliferation. Yet recent experimental findings suggest that, in both precancerous lesions and cancers, activated oncogenes induce stalling and collapse of DNA replication forks, which in turn leads to formation of DNA DSBs. This continuous formation of DNA DSBs may contribute to the genomic instability that characterizes the vast majority of human cancers. In addition, in precancerous lesions, these DNA DSBs activate p53, which, by inducing apoptosis or senescence, raises a barrier to tumor progression. Breach of this barrier by various mechanisms, most notably by p53 mutations, that impair the DNA damage response pathway allows cancers to develop. Thus, oncogene-induced DNA damage may explain two key features of cancer: genomic instability and the high frequency of p53 mutations.     

Chromosome segregation errors as a cause of DNA damage and structural chromosome aberrations

Various types of chromosomal aberrations, including numerical (aneuploidy) and structural (e.g., translocations, deletions), are commonly found in human tumors and are linked to tumorigenesis. Aneuploidy is a direct consequence of chromosome segregation errors in mitosis, whereas structural aberrations are caused by improperly repaired DNA breaks. Here, we demonstrate that chromosome segregation errors can also result in structural chromosome aberrations. Chromosomes that missegregate are frequently damaged during cytokinesis, triggering a DNA double-strand break response in the respective daughter cells involving ATM, Chk2, and p53. We show that these double-strand breaks can lead to unbalanced translocations in the daughter cells. Our data show that segregation errors can cause translocations and provide insights into the role of whole-chromosome instability in tumorigenesis.