Women

In New Zealand while women dominate leadership positions in constitutional, political and business areas, gender inequality remains entrenched. Despite significant gains in rights (employment, pay equity, property), as a group women earn less and perform more family care and unpaid work than men. In part these disparities result from the economic restructuring of the last 15 years which saw a loss in unskilled manufacturing jobs, less social support and greater rewards to business and public sector elites. Maori and Pacific Island women are the most disadvantaged groups. Labour/Alliance government initiatives to reduce poverty particularly among Maori and Pacific Island peoples by strengthening access to health and education services and supporting and replicating successful community initiatives are also likely to benefit other low income women.     

Te Iwi Maori

The decade started with the 150‐year commemoration of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi that established British governance. This was when Maori were severely and disproportionately affected by the structural adjustment programmes which had reduced their standards of living and thrown them back on their own community resources as government withdrew from community involvement. The continuing conflict between the desire to retain their collective Maori identity and the almost overwhelming forces of assimilation (internally) and globalisation affected fortunes of Maori New Zealanders (internationally). This is best exemplified by the conflict in the Treaty of Waitangi between British sovereignty and Maori tino rangatiratanga. As the decade progressed, government sought a full and final settlement of the many hundreds of historical treaty claims, with a unilateral declaration of what was available ($1 billion). Unilateral actions on either side did little to assuage the long‐standing sense of mutual mistrust between Maori and Pakeha which was fuelled by a hostile mass media. Notwithstanding, ‘progress’ was made, and the twentieth century ended with Maori and Pakeha closer together than they had ever been.     

The challenge of urban Maori: reconciling conceptions of indigeneity and social change

A massive demographic rural-urban shift has taken place within Maori society since the second world war. This demographic shift prompted changes in the structure of some Maori social institutions. Due to a number of factors these new social institutions have not been readily assimilated by Maori cultural practices. Recent battles over the allocation of pre-settlement Treaty assets have brought this issue to the fore, acting as catalysts in the struggle for recognition between evolutionary social change (represented by urban Maori) and the perceived static boundaries of indigenous culture (as represented by modern Iwi). This paper therefore addresses the problems of accommodating social change within ‘static’ cultural frameworks raised by the issue of asset allocation. The paper outlines the historical factors that have allowed incongruities between social structure and culture to emerge in New Zealand Maori society, and provides a number of options for consideration in the hope of resolving this issue.     

Maori1 commercial fisheries governance in Aotearoa2/New Zealand within the bounds of a neoliberal fisheries management regime

Recent literature on natural resource governance has highlighted the consequences of a strong imprint of neoliberal political ideologies on current environmental policies. A parallel theme in the recent literature relates to claims pertaining to ownership and management of natural resources by indigenous minorities in post‐colonial Western democracies who have been historically marginalised and impoverished by the aftermath of European colonisation. Recently, in order to respond to indigenous demands to settle long‐standing grievances for the return of their ancestral lands and natural resources, some post‐colonial governments have encouraged the development of indigenous self‐governance and co‐management initiatives to manage natural resources such as fisheries and forests. Based on a study of the recent Maori fisheries restitution policy initiatives in Aotearoa/New Zealand, this paper presents a preliminary interrogation of the new hybrid indigenous fisheries governance spaces within the bounds of a neoliberal fisheries management regime.     

Tauponui a Tia: an interpretation of Maori landscape and land tenure

In the mid-1950s Professor R. Gerard Ward carried out his first significant research project as a graduate student in the ‘Taupo country’– a diverse volcanic landscape with a rich Maori history in the central North Island of New Zealand. This paper traces my own ‘journeys’ into the Taupo country and my association with the complexities of both historical and contemporary understandings and realities of Maori land tenure. I use several specific examples, and draw on a variety of experiences to argue that the ‘Taupo country’ cannot be understood without an appreciation of the enduring Maori values which still permeate society and land tenure in New Zealand’s ‘volcanic desert’ landscape. Despite legislative efforts to impose on Maori a title system derived from British property law, and all the subsequent pressures to assimilate, enduring Maori values intertwined with ancestry and identity cannot be ignored either in reconstructions of the history or in current planning for the future of the Taupo region.     

Impacts of newly liberalised policies on customary land rights of forest‐dwelling populations: A case study from East Kalimantan,Indonesia

Based on interviews and participant observation conducted in the province of East Kalimantan, Indonesia, from 2008 to 2012, this paper examines why the agrarian reforms have failed to secure the land rights of local farmers. Since the fall of the authoritarian government in 1998, Indonesia has seen limited, but growing government recognition of customary land rights of local farmers living in forest areas. I present a case study of two villages, in which the greater discretion on the part of the local community to negotiate with large‐scale oil palm estates has led to the abuse of power by local elites, as well as territorial tensions between local communities. The finding questions the optimistic view that state recognition of customary land rights of communities would automatically lead to the security of landownership of local farmers, and its underlying image of harmonious local communities in which members share coherent interests. The agrarian reform that has centred on communities' rights of control over land and natural resources is problematic. When local communities do not possess capabilities for resolving conflicts in an equitable and transparent manner, third‐party intervention is needed to assist communities to strengthen local land rights.     

The origin of unreduced microspores due to aberrant cytokinesis in the meiocytes of potato and its genetic significance

Summary In 7 aneuhaploids of Solanum tuberosum and one clone of S. phureja the mechanism of unreduced microspore production has been studied. It has been observed that the unreduced microspores are produced not only by nuclear restitution at meiosis but also by aberrant cytokinesis in the meiocyte. The size and the number of nucleoli that are present in young microspores at the sporad stage give a fairly reliable indication of the ploidy level and the type of nuclear restitution that has occurred. These two aspects are helpful to deduce the meiotic events that have probably led to the formation of unreduced microspores in some cases. It has been found that triads and dyads are formed regardless of the type of nuclear division or restitution, indicating that cytokinesis is independent of karyokinesis to some extent. Cytological basis of unreduced microspore formation in diploid forms of potato appears to be more complex than it was supposed earlier.     

Haploid induction in potato: Cytological basis for the pollinator effect

Summary A hexaploid endosperm is regularly associated with a haploid embryo following 4x–2x crosses in potato. One explanation for this is that a single 24-chromosome restitution sperm nucleus fuses with the central cell of the megagametophyte. This suggests that a superior pollinator may be one that produces a high frequency of restitution sperm nuclei. To test this, a technique was developed for observing pollen tube mitosis in vitro following germination of potato pollen in a 20% lactose-50 ppm boric acid solution. A single 24-chromosome restitution sperm nucleus was found in up to 38% of the pollen tubes from a superior pollinator. Moreover, pollen from an inferior pollinator soaked in a sucrose-boric acid-colchicine solution produced 100% restitution sperm nuclei in vitro and a haploid frequency from a tetraploid cultivar comparable to that normally induced by an untreated superior pollinator. The data indicate that the effectiveness of a pollinator in inducing haploids in potato is determined by the frequency of restitution sperm nuclei it produces.Cooperative investigations of the Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. Part of a thesis submitted by the senior author in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Ph. D. degree. Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station.Research Assistant, Department of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin, and Research Geneticist, Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin 53706.     

A re-examination of the mechanisms of 2n gamete formation in potato and its implications for breeding

Summary The claim that first division restitution gametes are produced through the unique meiotic abnormality of parallel spindle formation at anaphase II of microsporogenesis in Solanum species appears to be not justified. An examination of the phenomenon of meiotic nuclear restitution in fifty-six diploid Solanum clones revealed that the parallel orientation of spindles either at metaphase or anaphae II does not necessarily lead to dyad or unreduced microspore formation. However, the fused spindle formation at metaphase II of microsporogenesis invariably leads to dyad and unreduced microspore formation. The 2n gametes produced through fused spindles may be genetically equivalent to first division restitution gametes, and therefore, they may be useful in potato breeding. In addition to fused spindle formation, at least three other types of meiotic abnormalities that could lead to 2n gamete formation were also observed. Although any one, or two, of these mechanisms were predominantly observed in certain clones, it was by no means certain that other mechanisms did not operate in these clones at the same time, or at a later stage. Because of the great modifying influence of environment on the process of meiosis, and meiotic nuclear restitution, it might be erroneous to conclude that one or the other meiotic nuclear restitution mechanism alone operates at a time in a given clone. In order to elucidate the genetic basis of 2n gamete formation in potato, it is desirable (i) to answer whether there are exclusive genetic mechanisms for the formation of first or second division restitution gametes; (ii) to establish reliable cytological criteria for their detection; and (iii) to determine the effect of environmental factors on the occurrence of different mechanisms.     

三权分置下农地经营权流转中的农户法律认知实证研究——以河北省张北县为例

为解决三权分置下农地经营权流转纠纷问题,运用问卷调查与实证研究法,以河北张北县为例,对364户农户在土地经营权流转前、中、后期3个阶段的法律认知进行实证研究。调查结果显示,在土地流转的行为发生前,农户对土地权利的归属以及农地流转政策存在认知盲区;流转中农户维权意识淡薄,合同内容不规范,政府监管不力;流转后农户权利救济的行为方式的选择上以非诉的方式为主。为更好地保护“三权分置”下农地经营权流转中弱势农户的正当权益不受侵犯,农地流转前应加强宣传,培育流转中介组织;流转过程中要规范合同模式,完善流转程序;流转后需健全纠纷解决机制,提升农民维权能力等对策建议。     

农地征收中的产权弱化问题分析

基于产权理论角度分析中国农地征收中存在的产权弱化问题。经过分析发现,农地产权的弱化导致农地征收的租值消散问题、农地征收定价困难问题与农地产权保护薄弱问题,这些问题都是造成农地征收补偿矛盾的重要原因。因此,中国农地征收可以从建立农地使用权交易市场、建立第三方评估制度、转变政府职能、加强农地产权保护等方面进行农地征收的制度完善,以强化农地产权,解决征地补偿中出现的诸多矛盾和问题。     

A Comparative Study of European and American PublicHousing Policies and Its Findings

I studied the similarities and differences of public housing policy between European countries and the United States using historic and comparative methods. Public housing policy was put in place in postwar European countries and the U.S. Differences in the policies of these countries were that the European policy intervened in the housing market directly and thoroughly but the American policy intervened in the housing market indirectly by financial and revenue means. The key finding is that housing in P. R. China is an important part of the people's livelihood and the government should not completely pass responsibility for providing it to the market. China should set up its own public housing policy and change the mode of land supply and housing manufacturing. China also should adopt multiplicative means, including direct government investment and encouraging the social anticipation and planning adjustment to guarantee the housing rights of middle-and-low-income households.     

农户农地确权认知与参与行为影响因素分析——以邛崃市为例

为了分析与地权利益相关的农户对确权内容的认知及其参与确权的影响因素,笔者利用邛崃市近期组织第三方调查问卷数据,描述分析农户对确权内容的认知特征,并构建logistic模型估计影响农户参与确权的因子。结果表明,农户的经营理念发生深刻变化,可选择的经营方式丰富多样;影响农户确权参与的主要因素是务农收入占家庭收入比重、土地功能,土地面积和是否有土地流转行为也对确权参与度有一定的影响。本研究认为,农地法权和经营性权利得以强化,农地之于农户的生存重要性是影响农户参与行为的主要方面。     

基于子博弈纳什均衡模型的征地安置补偿方式比较分析——以浙江省诸暨市为例

本文针对我国目前现行征地制度存在的缺陷和实际操作中存在的混乱和偏差,以及安置方式简单、安置责任不明确、缺乏针对失地农民的社会保障制度,农民的合法权益无法得到有效保障等问题,通过采用子博弈精炼纳什均衡构建了政府与被征地农民在征地安置补偿方式选取过程中的成本收益模型,为优化征地策略提供参考。通过对浙江省诸暨市的实证分析,建议政府在征地过程中合理选择安置方式、加大实施参与力度、合法规范征地行为。     

The ethnic geography of New Zealand: A decade of growth and change, 1991–2001

Abstract: New Zealand's population growth of 10 per cent over the decade 1991–2001 resulted substantially from an increasing number of those claiming Pacific Island and Asian ethnicity, and to a lesser extent of the New Zealand Maori. Using census data for a comparable set of small areas with average populations of just over 100, this paper examines the changing geography of the four main ethnic categories – New Zealand European, New Zealand Maori, Pacific Island Peoples, and Asians – across the country as a whole and in its major settlements, especially Auckland. There is little extreme segregation of the three minority groups, but most of the Europeans live in areas where there is little exposure to those of other ethnicities. Most of the changes in segregation reflect the growth of Auckland's Pacific Island and, especially, Asian populations.     

经营性建设用地征地补偿方式探究——土地权益入股

研究目的：通过分析经营性建设用地征地补偿实行土地权益入股的可行性和实行此种方式应具备的条件,为完善中国征地制度,保护失地农民利益提供一种思路。研究方法主要是文献资料法和理性分析法。研究结论：从理论常识、法律依据、企业需求、农民需求、政府等方面分析对经营性建设用地征地补偿方式实行土地权益入股是可行性的,并提出了实行此种方式应具备的基础条件、前提条件、技术条件和法律保证。     

Formation of unreduced gametes is impeded by homologous chromosome pairing in tetraploid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Triticum turgidum</Emphasis> × <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aegilops tauschii</Emphasis> hybrids

It is believed that unreduced gametes with somatic chromosome numbers play a predominant role in natural polyploidization. Allohexaploid bread wheat originated from spontaneous hybridization of Triticum turgidum L. with Aegilops tauschii Coss. Unreduced gametes originating via meiotic restitution, including first-division restitution (FDR) and single-division meiosis (SDM), are well documented in triploid F₁ hybrids of T. turgidum with diploid Ae. tauschii (genomic constitution ABD, usually with 21 univalents in meiotic metaphase I). In this study, two T. turgidum lines known to carry genes for meiotic restitution were crossed to tetraploid Ae. tauschii. The resulting F₁ hybrids (genomes ABDD), had seven pairs of homologous chromosomes and regularly formed 14 univalents and seven bivalents at metaphase I. Neither FDR nor SDM were observed. The distribution of chromosome numbers among progeny obtained by self pollination and a backcross to T. turgidum showed the absence of unreduced gametes. These results suggest that high homologous pairing interfered with meiotic restitution and the formation of unreduced gametes. This may be related to asynchronous movement during meiosis between paired and unpaired chromosomes or to uneven distribution of chromosomes in anaphases, resulting in nonviable gametes.     

Contradictions in land development schemes: the case of joint ventures in Sarawak,Malaysia

Landowners and the private investors often have contradictory interests in joint ventures. Although development planners sometimes believe that government can harmonise these contradictions, state interests in development often lead them to support the interests of private capital. While joint ventures may be useful ways of pooling human, material and financial resources, this article draws on a case study of two pilot joint venture oil palm schemes in Sarawak, Malaysia, to show that the legal construction and administration of native customary land rights generate lower results for landowners than they do for the private sector. Information and power asymmetries constrain the ability of affected natives to realise fair benefits under a joint venture arrangement. When institutional constraints that give a measure of protection to native rights and interests are dismantled in the rush to establish commercial plantations for example, an unregulated market can be detrimental to landowners’ rights and long–term interests.     

How do grassroot NGOs in rural Myanmar express their visions for the food system? Food security and food sovereignty as entangled narratives within NGO struggles and strategies

Recent research has promoted the idea that political struggles over food systems can be understood through the concepts of food security (the right to access food) and food sovereignty (the right to exercise control over food systems). These concepts emphasise different political priorities in the social relations of food: for the former, the promotion of decent work and the strengthening of the social safety net to enhance people's abilities to put food on their plates; for the latter, the defence of land, water and resource rights, to underpin capabilities for food own‐provisioning. The question we pose in this paper is how these priorities are articulated by grassroots non‐government organisations working at the frontline of global food poverty? Interviews with 22 representatives of food‐related non‐government organisations in Myanmar were used to elicit narratives about how they understood their challenges. The paper finds that narratives did not cohere exclusively to either the food security or food sovereignty concept, but blended ideas associated with the political priorities of both in complex and contradictory ways. These insights lend important firsthand evidence to the argument that supports a multi‐dimensional framing of the politics of food that is inclusive of the diverse struggles highlighted by food security and food sovereignty concepts.     

农业知识产权保护对中国农业竞争力的贡献检验(1985—2011)

自1985以来,中国已实施了一系列农业知识产权保护措施,验证它们对中国农业竞争力的作用方向与幅度是笔者的研究对象。首先从立法和执法2个角度综合测算中国农业知识产权保护水平,结果显示,中国农业知识产权保护水平在样本时期内呈现上升趋势。之后,在得出中国农业竞争力RCA指数一直下降结论的基础上,从农业知识产权投入和产出2个层面入手,选取指标构建模型,实证检验它们对中国农业竞争力的影响。结果显示,农业科研人员的比重、农业知识产权的保护水平以及各项农业知识产权保护产出指标均显示出对农业竞争力的正向促进作用,但农业科研经费投入对农业竞争力的影响不显著。