Factors Affecting the Sustainable Development of Community-Managed Nurseries for Promoting Rare Conifer Species in North-West Vietnam

This study examines factors affecting the sustainable development of seven community-managed nurseries growing two rare and valuable indigenous conifer species—Fokienia hodginsii and Taiwania cryptomerioides—in the Hoang Lien Mountain range in North-West Vietnam. The nurseries were pilot programs of the Fauna and Flora International (FFI) project entitled Community Based Conservation of the Hoang Lien Mountain Ecosystem. FFI partnered with local government organisations and farmers to carry out the pilot program, with the objective of providing improvements in community livelihoods together with measurable conservation benefits. This study, completed in September 2006, revealed that the overall objectives of the pilot program were not achieved due to financial, management, and technical reasons. There was a lack of market demand for these two rare conifer seedlings. Farmers and State Forestry Enterprises (SFEs) prefer to invest in fast-growing species for an earlier return. Demand for the seedlings by National Parks (NPs) is nearly zero due to limited funds to purchase seedlings and the capacity of NP staff to produce seedlings of these two rare conifer species. These two species are not included in the approved list of species by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) for the 5 Million Hectare Program (5MHP). The seed germination rate in nurseries was typically low, nursery operators were not well trained by FFI technical staff, and most of them did not understand fully all stages to set up and operate nurseries. Also, the co-operation among partners in the pilot program was not effective due to local partners not fully understanding their responsibilities, hence farmers did not receive valuable advice when they met technical difficulties. The research suggests that future similar projects can be more effective if major planting programs include these two rare conifer species in the approved list. Farmers operating community-managed nurseries should have adequate training and technical support by SFEs and NPs. Community-managed nurseries require sales contracts for seedlings of rare species with local customers (SFEs, district 5MHP management board and NPs). International organisations can play a role in providing funds to start up projects and oversee the responsibility of each of the partners involved in these projects.     

Tree Seedling Production Systems in Northern Mindanao, Philippines

This paper examines seedling production systems for small-scale forestry in northern Mindanao, particularly the constraints and opportunities to sustain the operation of smallholder nurseries. Various types of nurseries were identified to examine issues and concerns operators face, and data collected through a survey of nursery operators, discussion with government and NGO personnel, and literature review. Many smallholders in northern Mindanao have been engaged in seedling production, for farm needs and sale in local markets. The interest of smallholder to sustain seedling production depends on market demand and incentives, which translates to financial benefit on sound nursery practices and of reliable access to profitable markets. Activities that will assist smallholder nurseries to achieve full potential have been identified as: available nursery technologies to produce high quality planting materials in sufficient quantity; building farmer groups to facilitate seedling production and enhance the scale of product marketing; building partnerships with various service providers and other stakeholders to address technical, institutional, marketing and policy issues that may hamper the operation of smallholder nurseries; access to markets and market information; and provision of incentives and policy support. Associated benefits from small-scale seedling production accrue to the government, wood processors and to the public in general.     

Seedling quality and field performance of commercial stocklots of containerized holm oak (Quercus ilex) in Mediterranean Spain: an approach for establishing a quality standard

Holm oak is the hardwood most used for reforestation in Mediterranean Spain, which makes the development of stock quality standards in order to improve establishment success, a priority. However, its nursery culture is characterized by a wide range of practices resulting in stock heterogeneity and a potentially varied outplanting performance. Previous research has focused on specific seedling quality attributes, obviating the integral effect of nursery culture on overall quality. We studied growing regime, seedling quality, and field performance in nine holm oak stocklots produced in commercial nurseries during two consecutive growing years. Results proved variations in field performance were related to stocklot quality and, hence, to the growing regime practised. This dependence on stock quality may vary with planting site weather: in the drier year, survival was related to attributes like height, water status and K concentration, while, in the second, milder year, only growth performance was related to nutrient concentrations, plant size and water status. Results indicated the following quality standards for height: 12–17 cm, diameter: 3.5–4.8 mm, shoot and root weights: 1.3–1.6 and 2.8–4.7 g, respectively, N–P–K foliar concentrations: over 10–0.9–3.7 mg g⁻¹, respectively and in water status parameters: E_MX < 5 MPa and SWD_TL > 15%. These attributes can be adjusted using nursery cultural practices in order to meet seedling quality standards for holm oak for planting across similar sites.     

A Critical Overview of Forestry Seedling Production Policies and Practices in Relation to Smallholder Forestry in Developing Countries

This paper reviews forestry seedling production systems in South-east and East Asia and identifies problems with respect to seedling quality, seedling distribution and financial sustainability, and measures which have been adopted or advocated to improve performance in this sector. The paper draws in particular on experience in a series of research projects on smallholder forestry in the Philippines. Some observations are also drawn from the following papers in this combined special issue of Small-scale Forestry. It is found that a mix of public and private sector models are adopted for forestry seedling production, between and even within countries. Often nurseries are set up to provide seedlings for a government-directed expansion in tree planting, and have difficulty surviving once the initial planting purpose is completed. Private nurseries often lack resources, and depend on contracts to supply seedlings for financial viability. Demand tends to be highest for fast-growing species (often exotics), fruit trees, and ornamentals in the case of urban nurseries. Government policies typically favour quantity over quality of the seedlings produced. Considerable scope exists for adopting best or at least improved management practice in seedling nurseries.     

Silvopastoral Practices and the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

The Condor Bioreserve initiative has the potential to serve as a model of integrated watershed management for developing countries. Within the region, landowners and settlers, government agencies and multiple non-governmental organizations face the challenge to modify land uses to best serve the tripartite goals of managing water resources, preserving critical habitat for biological conservation, and maintaining livelihoods. Livestock, especially cattle, are a valued commodity for people in the region. At the same time, increased tree cover on private land can provide many benefits such as increased income diversity, soil retention, and improved conditions for biological conservation. Silvopastoral systems can accommodate the desires of local landowners for livestock while addressing conservation goals of increased tree cover. A review of such systems and related conditions in the Bioreserve region and Ecuador is followed by reviews of other examples from the Andes region and other mountainous parts of the world. Suggestions include promoting forestry systems with fuller canopies through a rating system in park connector areas and buffer zones, local value-added timber processing, consideration of timber certification, and continuing current successes, such as extensionists promoting tree-related projects, markets for forestry products derived from private lands, community tree nurseries, and improved pastures incorporating trees.     

Enhancing Tree Seedling Supply to Smallholders in Leyte Province, Philippines: An Evaluation of the Production System of Government Nursery Sector and Support to Smallholder Tree Farmers

A decentralized seedling production is regarded as the most effective means of providing smallholders with planting materials. However, the sustainability of smallholder nursery operation is constrained by several factors, including the limited availability of germplasm, lack of technical skills and low seedling demand low viability of seedling market. The government nursery sector could complement the weaknesses of the smallholder nursery group but government nurseries are not operating effectively to enhance the availability of high quality seedlings of a wide species base for smallholder forestry. Seedling production in government nurseries is quantity-orientated with low emphasis on the production of high quality planting materials. Germplasm used in seedling production is mostly collected from unselected sources and seedlings produced are mostly of low physical quality. The species selection in government nurseries is heavily based on the availability of germplasm which resulted in the production of a few species which are commonly raised on private nurseries. The duplication of species of most seedlings raised in government nurseries with those produced in private nurseries and the far distance of government nurseries from the villages has resulted in low uptake of seedlings by smallholder tree farmers. For the government nursery sector to become more effective in providing support in the present paradigm of decentralized seeding production, a change from its production system and a broadening of the role it plays is needed. The social mobilization on seedling production as a scheme of implementing the Green Philippines Program has led the Department of Environment and Natural Resources to acknowledge the seedling production activity of private individual and communal nursery groups. This can be an opportunity for organizing the private and government nursery sectors to promote the operational effectiveness of the overall forest nursery industry.     

Chamaedorea Palm Frond Commercialization and Certification Considered from a Smallholder Livelihood System Perspective

Chamaedorea palm frond (xate) certification has been broadly promoted throughout Mesoamerica as a means to foster the integration of forest conservation and economic development. This study examined the feasibility of xate commercialization and certification at the scale of the extractor livelihood system in an ejido in the Chinantla region of Oaxaca, Mexico. Ethnographic methods were used to collect livelihood system data. These data were used to develop an ethnographic linear program (ELP) model of extractor households to analyze the effects of palm frond management and marketing scenarios on their livelihoods. Three necessary conditions for the feasibility of certification were hypothesized: two related to extractor livelihoods and another related to market fluidity. Livelihood outcomes supported the notion that resource sustainability and economic development are not mutually exclusive, and provided support for xate certification as an intervention oriented toward the integration of these objectives. In contrast, the model revealed an unfavorable discrepancy between xate supply and the level of demand expressed by an interested buyer. This shortfall represented a substantial obstacle to the feasibility of xate certification in the community. Low demand fulfillment suggested that xate certification ultimately represents an infeasible strategy for the community, irrespective of the observed livelihood and conservation benefits. Results highlighted the importance of understanding household objectives and market context in local decisions to pursue NTFP certification. We suggest that the community’s objectives would best be served by engaging neighboring communities in a cooperative and controlled effort to augment regional supply.     

Assessing the Quality of Seedlings in Small-scale Nurseries in the Highlands of Cameroon: The Use of Growth Characteristics and Quality Thresholds as Indicators

In developing countries seedlings are often produced in small-scale nurseries as a means to raise tree planting materials and, provided they are of high quality, these can form the basis for successful forest plantation initiatives. This study uses morphological characteristics to assess the quality of seedlings of three tree species (Persea americana, Cola acuminata and Dacryodes edulis) in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. The growth characteristics and quality indicators of seedlings produced in two nursery categories were compared—three nurseries collaborating with the tree domestication program implemented by the World Agroforestry Centre (Category 1) and three nurseries collaborating with government and non-governmental projects (Category 2). Seedlings produced in nurseries in the first nursery category were found to be uniform in terms of growth characteristics and quality indicators. In the second category, there were relatively higher seedling proportions having measured parameters out of threshold standards for root to shoot ratio and for sturdiness quotient. Significant differences between nursery categories (at α = 0.05) were detected in root collar diameter of C. acuminata and D. edulis and in shoot dry weight of D. edulis. These differences could be attributed to better nursery management as a results of training and technical backstopping received by nursery operators in Category 1. The level of experience of nursery operators in both categories was found to be insufficient and greater exposure to skills and knowledge could enhance the production of high quality seedlings.     

Development and Implementation of a Forest Nursery Accreditation Policy at a Local Level in Leyte, Philippines

Through a series of workshops with the stakeholders including nursery operators, tree farmers, staff of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, local government units and the academe, a forestry seedling nursery accreditation policy was developed. The resulting policy was subsequently implemented by the municipal government of Palompon, Leyte. The accreditation policy encouraged nursery operators to follow smallholder-based best management practices for tree nurseries. Implementation of the nursery accreditation policy improved farmers’ knowledge and skills in the production of high quality seedlings, encouraged adoption of BMP for forest nurseries, provided additional source of income for the farmers, enabled members of the groups operating the communal nursery to forge closer relationship with each other, encouraged utilization of farmers’ free time in productive activities, developed farmers’ confidence in producing high quality planting materials, and gained for the farmers favourable attention from various organizations and groups. The Bennett’s hierarchy of project outcomes showed that the implementation of accreditation scheme achieved high levels of outcomes, indicating that it led to substantial improvements in the lives of the farmers.     

Protected Sal Forest and Livelihoods of Ethnic Minorities: Experience From Bangladesh

Protected areas are an appropriate means for managing biodiversity and have become increasingly central to conservation strategies. However, declaring a natural resource to be protected has an immense influence on the livelihoods of many local communities living in and around the protected area. This article explores the role of protected sal forests—namely, the Madhupur National Park (MNP) on the livelihoods of forest-dependent ethnic minorities, drawing empirical data from ethnic households. The results revealed that the MNP has brought changes, most of which have had negative impacts on ethnic livelihoods. Now their livelihoods are not stable, as most do not have substantial sources of securing income. In spite of this, the ethnic communities have experienced severe antagonistic relationships with park managers and faced social inequity; all these factors affect their livelihoods. Therefore, establishment of a legitimate process to constructively work with the local communities is the most feasible and just way to achieve conservation and development.     

Working time design for industrial forest plantations in East Kalimantan

The objectives of this study were to clarify physiological loads under tropical conditions and to establish a proper working time design for tropical forestry operations. The research was conducted in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, in 1995. In this research, physiological loads and thermal conditions were investigated under various conditions,i.e., in forests and nurseries, on roads and at logged-over areas. Using the standards of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), a structure of work to rest proportions could be designed properly. Results showed that felling and cutting trees and weeding in the forest could be done continuously early in the morning and with 25% rest time for the remainder of the work day. Spreading fertilizer at the nursery could be done almost continuously all day. Road maintenance could be performed continuously during early morning but 50–100% rest time was needed for the remainder of the day. At logged-over areas, path clearing using chainsaws and soil hoeing required 50% rest early in the morning and 75–100% rest after that time, while planting required 25% rest early in the morning and 50–100% rest after that time. In conclusion, work done at logged-over areas required a greater percentage of rest time than work at other locations except early in the morning. A part of this paper was orally presented at the 107th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Forestry Society (1996). Corresponding author.     

Integrierter Schutz gegen Pilzschädlinge in den tschechoslowakischen Forstbaumschulen1

Integrated pest control in the Czechoslovak forest nurseries. In the last decades new permanent forest nursery centres are being built in Czechoslovakia. Plant protection is one of the important components of the new nursery technology and the main problems and principles of integrated disease control are discussed. One of the main components are fungicides, which have to be used very sensibly and with high responsibility not only because of their good effectiveness and disease control, but also because of the environment protection and healthy landscape conservation. In a short survey main disease-types in Czechoslovak nurseries and an outline of Czechoslovak fungicides are given.     

美国丹佛樱桃溪生态廊道人工修复成功案例

文章根据笔者在美国丹佛市考察期间的部分见闻整理而成,通过现场观察和资料收集,对丹佛樱桃溪生态廊道人工修复工程项目做了全面介绍,其中社会参与、财务公开、科普宣传及坡面治理等经验值得我国借鉴。       

Assessment of Small-Scale Private Nursery Enterprises in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

Small-scale private nurseries in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria, are examined with the purpose of identifying policy options that could further enhance development of the enterprises. A random sample of nurserymen operating in the city was interviewed about their reasons for engaging in the nursery business, types of services rendered by the nurserymen to seedling buyers, duration of nursery establishment, mode of land acquisition, species of seedling produced, factors affecting price of the seedling species, and source and cost of labour. Most of the private nurseries were owned by private individuals engaging in the business for reasons including income generation, as a hobby, and for research. Landscaping was the most common service rendered by the nurserymen; other services included maintenance of private gardens, and supply of seedling to individuals and landscaping contractors. Most of the land used for establishing the nurseries was obtained through lease from the government, with some through purchase and family land. Most of the labour was provided by the nurseries operators, employment of family members and some hired labourers. Seedlings of ornamental plants were in highest demand followed by seedlings of horticultural crops, and forest trees. Requirements for the nursery industry to develop further were identified, including land availability and at affordable price, and affordable interest rates charged by financial institutions on businesses loans. Training programs including workshops and seminars are necessary to keep nursery operators abreast with current techniques of seedling propagation as well as record keeping and business principles. Further, the nurserymen need to embark on strategies that add value to their products.     

California's regulatory forest carbon market: Viability for northeast landowners

Carbon markets have the potential to reward landowners for improved forest management and forest conservation. To date, the Over the Counter (OTC) voluntary market represents the greatest opportunity for forest landowners to participate in carbon transactions. However, lack of a consistent carbon price signal and sporadic demand coupled by high transaction costs has prevented widespread participation from family forest landowners. Adoption of a U.S. based cap-and-trade program reduces price risk and may provide incentives for sustainable forest management across large areas. Yet few studies have examined the supply side of carbon offsets and factors affecting project financial viability. To address this gap, we assessed how (1) property characteristics (i.e. stocking level, forest type, size etc.); (2) silvicultural treatments; and (3) protocol and legislative requirements affect the financial viability of compliance forest offset projects, focusing on California's Air Resource Board (ARB) program due to its significance as the world's second largest carbon market. We used forest inventory data from 25 properties in the northeastern United States to examine the viability of the sites as ARB offset projects. We utilized the U.S. Forest Service Forest Vegetation Simulator for our growth and yield simulations. To examine the factors that influence project viability, we used a classification and regression tree analysis performed in S-Plus software. Results indicate C stocking and property size are the most important property characteristics driving return on investment. However, protocol requirements and legislative assumptions impacting long-term monitoring costs are also important factors. While reduced price risk in a compliance carbon market has the potential to improve forest management in North America; high initial project development costs, long-term monitoring obligations, and legislative uncertainty are significant barriers that will limit family forest landowner market participation. The model developed here can be used by U.S. landowners to assess the financial viability of their property as a compliance offset project and can be utilized by policymakers to develop cost-effective climate change policy.     

Decentralization of Tree Seedling Supply Systems for Afforestation in the West of Yunnan Province, China

At present, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 km² of tree plantations undertaken in 2008. While the prominent role of the central government’s afforestation programs is well-known, little is understood of how the system of tree seedling production and distribution supports afforestation efforts. More importantly, little attention is paid to how small-scale farmers access high quality tree germplasm in the afforestation programs. This paper examines the seedling supply system in the west of Yunnan Province in China by focusing on the three types of tree nurseries (state, collective and individual) that are being operated for the development of smallholder forestry especially in the context of decentralization. The research reveals that forestry decentralization has provided support for smallholder access to high quality planting materials and improved the effectiveness of nursery management. The reform has enabled the engagement of various forms of nurseries and created a hybrid system of state nursery operations. However, the state monopoly over the major seedling supply system using its inherent technical, market, policy and institutional advantages has limited the development of small-scale nurseries. The policy implication of this research is that improvements to the governance structure in the supply system of tree seedling may require more investment in nursery techniques, market information and provision of incentives to enhance small-scale nurseries and to contribute to seedling production.     

Variation in water relations characteristics of terminal shoots of Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) seedlings

We measured water relations attributes of the terminal shoots of 3-year-old Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl.) seedlings that represented its geographic range. Pressure-volume curves were developed and osmotic potentials at full (psi(sf)) and zero turgor (psi(sz)), relative water content at zero turgor, and an index of tissue elasticity (IE) were calculated for 38 families during early, mid- and late summer at an inland nursery, and for 12 of these families during mid- and late summer at a coastal nursery. Compared with other conifer species, psi(sz) was high (-1.4 to -1.5 MPa) and declined in seedlings at both nurseries as the season progressed. Both IE and osmotic amplitude (psi(sf)-psi(sz)) increased during the season. Osmotic potential at zero turgor was lower and osmotic amplitude greater in seedlings at the inland nursery than at the coastal nursery. Correlations of water relations attributes with geographic location of the seed sources were weak and usually not significant. High elevation southern sources exhibited smaller differences in psi(sz) between nurseries than low elevation northern sources. The small differences in water relations attributes among sources and between nurseries suggest that some may be of marginal physiological importance; however, sources that produced larger seedlings appeared to be less desiccation tolerant. We conclude that, when moving genotypes during reforestation, decisions based on patterns in tree size and timing of growth will account for these small differences in water relations.     

Effect of seed coverings and seed pretreatments on the germination response of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alnus glutinosa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Betula pubescens</Emphasis> seeds

The germination of common alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) and downey birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) seeds is often poor in bare-root nurseries. The effect of a variety of seed coverings and a few seed pretreatments on seedling emergence was examined in this study in an attempt to address this problem. Seeds of each species were sown in trays containing nursery soil, covered with grit, gravel, sand, combinations of these coverings, a hydromulch or a sealed plastic cloche and then incubated for 6 weeks at 17–20°C. The grit combined with sand or gravel, the hydromulch and the cloche increased seedling emergence when compared with the standard grit. In another experiment, seeds of each species were fully imbibed (FI) (>50% moisture content, MC), as per standard practice, or adjusted to target MC (TMC) (30–35% MC) levels, and then chilled to release dormancy. Some seeds of each MC treatment were primed at 20°C for 2 days following chilling, after which all seeds were evaluated in laboratory tests and a nursery trial. Germination potential of the FI seeds declined in the lab tests by the second test date, which was reflected in low seedling emergence in the nursery in birch. The primed FI seeds of alder germinated most rapidly in the nursery, but other effects were not significant. Seedling emergence was better in the nursery in response to the TMC than the FI pretreatment in birch.

Small-scale forestry development in Leyte,Philippines: The central role of nurseries

This paper presents results of survey research into the role of the forestry nursery sector in the development of smallholder forestry in Leyte, Philippines. Seedling production in the province is basically carried out by three categories of nurseries: individual, communal and the government. Seedlings in the government nurseries are primarily raised for free distribution to landholders but the extension scheme fails to reach the majority of the smallholder farmers. Seedling demand of landholders is mostly catered for by the more numerous and accessible individual and communal nurseries. However, problems of capital outlay, sources and supply of germplasm, technical knowledge in nursery management for both timber and fruit trees and low sales are among the major impediments in the sustainability of small-scale nurseries. Most of the communal nurseries fail to sustain the operation after the withdrawal of supporting agencies. Knowledge on site-species matching is needed not only by small-scale nursery operators but also by the managers of government nurseries. It is concluded that the seedling industry in the province is not well established and there is a need to organise better the overall nursery system so as to improve the availability of seedlings and promote appropriate site and species combinations.     

Coffee Agroforestry Systems for Conservation and Economic Development

Abstract

The agroforestry program of the AMISCONDE Initiative was implemented in 13 buffer zone communities of La Amistad Biosphere Reserve. This program introduced citrus (Citrus spp.) and promoted the widespread inclusion of poró (Erythrina poeppigiana) shade trees, ground story vegetation, and soil conservation techniques to the local cultivation of coffee (Coffea arabica var caturra). This program sought long-term socioeconomic and ecological health in these buffer zone communities through conservation and development projects such as coffee agroforestry systems. This paper examines the ecological and socioeconomic benefits of two introduced coffee agroforestry systems: coffee-poró and coffee-citrus. The project has decreased agrochemical inputs, integrated multi-strata vegetation, and implemented soil conservation techniques such as vetiver grass, cover crops, terraces, water channeling, and shade trees in an effort to sustainably manage coffee production on the steep buffer zone slopes. The agroforestry project of the AMISCONDE Initiative has likely improved the production of coffee ecologically and economically. However, new specialty markets should be explored to increase economic and ecological gains. Organic and fair trade coffee niche markets are suggested as alternatives for meeting the long-term AMISCONDE objectives of community development and conservation.