Education needs in veterinary epidemiology in the Caribbean

This paper reviews the livestock situation in the Caribbean countries including animal populations, common disease problems and some of the factors relating to disease control. It refers to the particular training needs of veterinarians that would best serve the type of epidemiological investigations required to control diseases in the area. It emphasizes the practical approach and considerations that veterinarians must exercise in dealing with the particular sociological and cultural factors of each country. Reference is also made to the problems of training and then retaining an adequate number of veterinarians in the area.     

The state of veterinary epidemiology and economics

Recent developments in the fields of veterinary epidemiology and economics are critically reviewed and assessed. The impacts of recent technological developments in diagnosis, genetic characterisation, data processing and statistical analysis are evaluated. It is concluded that the acquisition and availability of data remains the principal constraint to the application of available techniques in veterinary epidemiology and economics, especially at population level. As more commercial producers use computerised management systems, the availability of data for analysis within herds is improving. However, consistency of recording and diagnosis remains problematic. Recent trends to the development of national livestock databases intended to provide reassurance to consumers of the safety and traceability of livestock products are potentially valuable sources of data that could lead to much more effective application of veterinary epidemiology and economics. These opportunities will be greatly enhanced if data from different sources, such as movement recording, official animal health programmes, quality assurance schemes, production recording and breed societies can be integrated. However, in order to realise such integrated databases, it will be necessary to provide absolute control of user access to guarantee data security and confidentiality. The potential applications of integrated livestock databases in analysis, modelling, decision-support, and providing management information for veterinary services and livestock producers are discussed.     

Analysis of time-space clustering in veterinary epidemiology

Techniques useful for investigating time–space interaction in the clustering of events in veterinary epidemiology — the Mantel test, Barton’s method, nearest-neighbour test and Knox’s test — are described. The use of these techniques is demonstrated by the analysis of a data set (containing blowfly catches on a commercial sheep property located in Tasmania, Australia, during the period December 1997–May 1998) in which clustering was apparent. Significant (P<0.05) clustering of blowfly catches in the data set was only detected by Knox’s test. The use of Knox’s test provided an insight into the possible clustering of blowfly catches over short (≤3 km) spatial and temporal (≤1 month) distances. Results demonstrate that several techniques should be used when attempting to identify and describe whether events are clustered in time and space (to maximise the power of the analysis). Also, it is important to consider the spatial and temporal models implicit in techniques chosen when interpreting results of analysis.     

Duties and functions of veterinary public health for the management of food safety: present needs and evaluation of efficiency

Functions of veterinarians in the context of food safety assurance have changed very much in the last ten years as a consequence of new legislation. The aim of this review is to evaluate the management tools in veterinary public health that shall be used in response to the actual need and consider some possible key performance indicators. This review involved an examination of the legislation, guidelines and literature, which was then discussed to analyse the actual need, the strategies and the procedures with which the public veterinary service shall comply. The management of information gathered at different stages of the food chain, from both food production operators and veterinary inspectors operating in primary production, food processing and feed production should be exchanged and integrated in a database, not only to produce annual reports and plan national sampling plans, but also to verify and validate the effectiveness of procedures and strategies implemented by food safety operators to control risks. Further, the surveillance data from environmental agencies and human epidemiological units should be used for assessing risks and addressing management options.     

Duties and functions of veterinary public health for the management of food safety: present needs and evaluation of efficiency

Functions of veterinarians in the context of food safety assurance have changed very much in the last ten years as a consequence of new legislation. The aim of this review is to evaluate the management tools in veterinary public health that shall be used in response to the actual need and consider some possible key performance indicators. This review involved an examination of the legislation, guidelines and literature, which was then discussed to analyse the actual need, the strategies and the procedures with which the public veterinary service shall comply. The management of information gathered at different stages of the food chain, from both food production operators and veterinary inspectors operating in primary production, food processing and feed production should be exchanged and integrated in a database, not only to produce annual reports and plan national sampling plans, but also to verify and validate the effectiveness of procedures and strategies implemented by food safety operators to control risks. Further, the surveillance data from environmental agencies and human epidemiological units should be used for assessing risks and addressing management options.     

EPISCOPE: computer programs in veterinary epidemiology

Veterinary epidemiology is a rapidly developing science. However, many veterinarians are unfamiliar with the relevant techniques because veterinary schools have not introduced biostatistics as a core element of their courses or adopted epidemiology as a specific discipline. EPISCOPE, the computer software presented in this paper, covers many epidemiological principles and calculations. It can assist both the teaching of epidemiology and the analysis of field data.     

Use of molecular epidemiology in veterinary practice.

Molecular epidemiology is a relatively new branch of epidemiology that uses molecular biology methods to study health and disease in populations. This article gives an introduction to molecular epidemiologic terminology and methodology and its usefulness in large animal medicine and veterinary public health. Applications in source tracing and vaccine studies and insights into transmission dynamics, host specificity, and niche adaptation of infectious organisms are presented. Examples are drawn from a variety of diseases, organisms, and host species and range from the global level to the individual-animal level.     

The role of veterinary epidemiology and veterinary services in complying with the World Trade Organization SPS agreement

The agreement on the application of sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS agreement) was one of the major products of the GATT's Uruguay round of multilateral trade negotiations, signed in Marrakesh on 15 April 1994. This agreement and others are part of the treaty that established the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO superseded the GATT as the umbrella organization for international trade (WTO, 1998a). The SPS agreement's main intent is to provide guidelines and provisions to member countries to facilitate trade while taking measures to protect human, animal or plant life or health. The agreement dictates that all sanitary measures must be scientifically based and not more restrictive than required to avoid the risk identified. The agreement recommends the use of international standards from the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), Codex Alimentarius (CAC) and the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) as the basis for import requirements. If a country chooses to apply more restrictive measures than those in the international standards, it has to justify its position through a risk analysis, thus avoiding the use of sanitary and phytosanitary measures as unjustified barriers to trade. More than ever, veterinary services worldwide are faced with having to fulfill a crucial role in protecting their country's animal health status, provide sound surveillance information on the occurrence of diseases within their territories, and conduct scientifically valid risk analyses to establish justified import requirements. During the past two decades, most countries have experienced resource reduction in their veterinary services. The effect of these policies has been severe, in many cases leading to an inability of veterinary services to conduct their disease prevention and control duties. There is a clear inconsistency between the demands placed on veterinary services and the current level of funding and support they are receiving, particularly in the developing world. This paper analyzes the implications in complying with the SPS agreement and explores the role of veterinary epidemiology in developing viable alternatives that can enhance the veterinary services' ability to perform under the current economic reality. The key provisions of the SPS agreement are regionalization, risk analysis, harmonization, equivalence and transparency. The paper focuses on the contribution of epidemiology in each of these areas in the effective implementation of the SPS agreement.     

Techniques for analysis of disease clustering in space and in time in veterinary epidemiology

Techniques to describe and investigate clustering of disease in space — the nearest-neighbour test, autocorrelation, Cuzick-and-Edwards’ test and the spatial scan statistic — and in time — the Ederer–Myers–Mantel test and the temporal scan statistic — are reviewed. The application of these techniques in veterinary epidemiology is demonstrated by the analysis of a data set describing the occurrence of blowfly strike — both body strike and breech strike — between August 1998 and May 1999 in 33 commercial sheep flocks located within two local government areas of southeastern Queensland, Australia. By applying a combination of these methods, the occurrence of blowfly strike in the study area is well-characterised in both space and time. Guidelines for investigating disease clusters in veterinary epidemiology are discussed.     

Teaching and learning communication in veterinary medicine

Drawing on extensive evidence and experience in human medicine, this article offers a practical conceptual framework for thinking more precisely about how to teach and learn communication systematically and intentionally in veterinary medicine. The overarching goal is to promote the development of communication programs so as to improve communication in veterinary practice to a professional level of competence. A three-part conceptual framework is presented that first explores the rationale behind teaching and learning communication, including the evidence base regarding the impact of communication on clinician-client interactions and outcomes of care and the research on teaching and learning communication skills in medicine. The second part considers four ways to conceptualize what to teach and learn, as explicated by (a) the domains of communication in veterinary medicine; (b) 'first principles' of effective communication; (c) evidence-based goals or outcomes for communication programs; and (d) delineation and definition of the specific individual skills that research evidence supports, as presented in the Calgary-Cambridge Guides. The last part of the conceptual framework examines how to teach communication, including the use of models, a primary focus on skill development as the backbone of communication programs, and the value of other methods supported by the evidence, such as simulated patients, videotape, small groups, and feedback and facilitation skills. Communication impacts the clinician- client interaction and outcomes of care in very significant ways. Communication can and should be taught and learned with as much rigor as other aspects of clinical competence. Veterinary programs at all levels should include the teaching of communication.