Extreme neutral genetic and morphological divergence supports classification of Adriatic three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) populations as distinct conservation units

The fact that the intraspecific genetic differentiation in neutral genetic markers and genes coding for adaptive traits are not typically correlated has caused a great deal of conceptual and practical trouble in delimitation of conservation units. Although the importance of combining information on adaptive genetic divergence with information on historical and recent gene flow in the delimitation of conservation units has been recognized, integrated empirical studies to this end are still rare. We explored the evidence for the specific conservation status of two freshwater three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) populations on the Adriatic side of the Balkan Peninsula by comparing their phenotypic and genetic characteristics to those of other representative European populations. Apart from focusing on the neutral genetic divergence in mitochondrial DNA sequences and microsatellite markers, we also compared the patterns of morphological differentiation (i.e. bony armour development) resulting from adaptation to freshwater environments. The Balkanic populations formed two distinct groups with regard to neutral genetic variation and had the least developed bony armour of all the examined populations. All morphometric analyses identified the two Balkanic populations as phenotypically – and hence most likely also ecologically – clearly distinct from other European three-spined stickleback populations. These results suggest that the two Balkanic populations (River Neretva and River Zeta) fulfil the most stringent criteria (i.e. lack of genetic and ecological exchangeability) to be classified as conservation units distinct from other European three-spined stickleback populations.     

Genetic and morphological divergence in island and mainland birds: Informing conservation priorities

Evolutionary processes can complicate conservation efforts for species with uncertain taxonomic classifications and discrete geographic populations. Discordant morphological and genetic patterns across the geographic range of species further calls for the identification of evolutionary significant units for conservation. Using island and mainland populations of a small Australian passerine (the superb fairy-wren, Malurus cyaneus), we examine the relationship between morphological and genetic divergence among two subspecies, M. c. ashbyi (Kangaroo Island, South Australia) and M. c. leggei (South Australia, mainland), using eight microsatellite markers. Island birds showed clear evidence for morphological divergence, with a larger body size and thinner bill compared to mainland birds. Two genetic clusters were found using Bayesian methods, comprising mainland and island regions. Estimates of recent migration rates between all sites were very low (<2%). Morphological and genetic differentiation between island and mainland sites correlated significantly, but not when controlling for isolation by distance. Genetic and morphological substructure was evident with three distinct genetic clusters in each region. Males, the highly sedentary sex, appeared to drive correlations between morphological and genetic differentiation. Our study provides evidence that the subspecies classification of M. cyaneus in island and mainland regions encapsulates two independently diverging populations that can be recognised in conservation planning.     

Genetic Diversity and Structure of Wild Tunisian Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae) Populations

Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae), in Tunisia, is closely associated with Quercus suber L. forest which stretched continuously from the North to parts of Cap Bon and Tunisian Dorsal. The destruction of the primary oak forests associated to an over-exploitation of Myrtus for its essential oil quality had led to discontinuous populations exhibiting various levels of degradation. Using starch gel electrophoresis, we analyzed the polymorphism of nine isozymes in order to assess genetic diversity and structuring of 17 natural populations prospected in the three geographical regions and coinciding with subhumid, humid inferior and semi-arid superior bioclimates. The analysis of the level and the distribution of the genetic diversity in this species might help in its conservation. Out of the 18 loci detected for all populations and isozymes analyzed, 12 loci were polymorphic. Allelic frequencies differed according to populations and particular alleles characterized ecological groups. A high level of genetic variation within populations was observed. The mean number of alleles per polymorphic locus was Ap = 1.67, the percentage of polymorphic loci was P = 60.3% and the observed (Ho) and the expected (He) heterozygosities were respectively 0.144 and 0.215. Populations belonging to subhumid (Cap Bon) and semi-arid superior (Tunisian Dorsal) climates, located in degraded sites exhibited the highest level of inbreeding (0.425 < F_IS < 0.450). A high level of differentiation (F_ST = 0.396) and a low gene flow (Nm = 0.337) among populations, as a result of habitat intermediate destruction, were revealed. The differentiation of populations within the same bioclimate (or geographic) group was substantial and relatively higher for semi-arid superior populations (F_ST = 0.262), which were more distant. The three ecological groups exhibited a high level of structuring (F_ST = 0.401). These differentiations might be due to geographic distances and to the variations of ecological factors between sites, including human activities and environmental factors. Nei’s (1972) genetic distances calculated between pairs of populations were globally low (0.006 < D < 0.367) with a mean of 0.15. They indicate a high level of similarity between populations. UPGMA clustering, established through Nei’s genetic distances, showed three population aggregates according to their geographic/bioclimatic appartenances. The high differentiation between populations and the low level of their genetic divergence indicated their recent isolation under anthropic pressures. The species conservation (in situ or ex situ) strategies should take into account the genetic diversity level within populations and its variation between geographic groups.     

Linking the gaps between conservation research and conservation management of rare dipterocarps: A case study of Shorea lumutensis

To conserve a rare plant, conservation programs must be guided by the biological attributes of the species. What constitutes the most critical biological information for plant conservation has been the issue of discussion for the last 30 years. Most scientists promote an approach that is either ecological or genetic in emphasis. Ecological and genetic processes will often interact synergistically to influence the population viability and to determine the persistence of populations in the long run. Consequently, conservation management of plant species, in addition to ecological information, requires a robust understanding of underlying genetic processes as well as the variation within and between populations. Conservation has a cost and the resources available for conservation programs are always limited. Therefore, conservation management strategies should not only be scientifically justified but also practical in terms of resource availability. Shorea lumutensis is a rare and endemic dipterocarp in Peninsular Malaysia. A comprehensive research activity was initiated to assess the population ecology and population genetics of S. lumutensis to elucidate specific ecological and genetic requirements and subsequently to set conservation strategies and priorities. This paper is apparently the first attempt at applying both the ecological and genetic approaches into conservation management of a rare dipterocarp. In addition, this paper also attempts to link the gaps between conservation research and conservation management in a realistic manner. It is our hope that this study will serve as a model for the study of other rare dipterocarps which should be given priority for conservation.     

Microsatellite analysis of genetic population structure of the endangered cyprinid Anaecypris hispanica in Portugal: implications for conservation

The endangered fish species Anaecypris hispanica is restricted to eight disjunct populations in the Portuguese Guadiana drainage. The genetic structure of these populations was studied in order to determine levels of genetic variation within and among populations and suggest implications for conservation of the species. Based on five microsatellite loci, the null hypothesis of population homogeneity was tested. Tests for genetic differentiation revealed highly significant differences for pairwise comparisons between all populations, and substantial overall population subdivision (F_ST=0.112). All sampled populations contained unique alleles. Our findings indicate marked genetic structuring and emphasise limited dispersal ability. The high levels of genetic diversity detected within and among A. hispanica populations suggest, however, that the observed fragmentation and reduction in population size of some populations during the last two decades, has impacted little on levels of genetic variability. Data imply that most A. hispanica populations should be managed as distinct units and that each has a high conservation value containing unique genetic variation. It is argued that geographic patterns of genetic structuring indicate the existence of eight management units.     

Genetic Diversity in Tunisian Ceratonia siliqua L. (Caesalpinioideae) Natural Populations

The last two centuries witnessed the human-caused fragmentation of Tunisian Ceratonia siliqua L. (Caesalpinoideae) populations which were often represented by scattered individuals. Seventeen populations growing in four bioclimatic zones: sub-humid, upper semi-arid, mean semi-arid and lower semi-arid zones, were sampled for allozyme diversity to assess their genetic diversity and structuration using eight isozymes revealed by starch gel electrophoresis. The species showed high diversity within populations. The average number of alleles per polymorphic locus was 1.98, the percentage of polymorphic loci was 83.4% and the mean observed heterozygosity (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) under Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium were respectively 0.247 and 0.316. A substantial level of inbreeding within populations induced by Wahlund effect, was observed (F_IS = 0.231). High diversity resulted from the great number of genotypes in the ancestral population before fragmentation, favoured by the outbreeding of the species. High differentiation and low gene flow were detected among populations (F_ST = 0.200) and among pairs of ecological zones (0.113< F_ST <0.198). However, the differentiation coefficient of the four zones was low (F_ST = 0.085) and similar to the average F_ST for forest trees. Population structuration depends on geographic distance between sites rather than bioclimate, indicating that structuration has occurred slowly and that climatic conditions have had little effect. Nei's genetic distances (D) between populations were low and ranged from 0.004 to 0.201. Mean D value for all population was 0.087. The UPGMA clustering established for all populations through Nei's genetic distances did not clearly show that, for the majority of populations, grouping had resulted from ecological factors or geographic location. The substantial differentiation and the high genetic similarities between populations indicate that populations have been recently isolated as a result of anthropic pressure. In-situ conservation strategies must first focus on populations with a high level of genetic diversity and rare alleles. Appropriate conservation action should take account of bioclimatic zones. Ex-situ preservation should be based on a maximum number of individuals collected within populations in each ecological group and their propagation in different bioclimates by means of cuttings.     

Restricted gene flow and genetic drift in recently fragmented populations of an endangered steppe bird

Identifying the genetic processes derived from habitat fragmentation is critical for the conservation of endangered species. We conducted an integrated analysis of genetic patterns in the endangered Dupont’s lark (Chersophilus duponti), a circum-Mediterranean songbird threatened by the loss and fragmentation of natural steppes in recent decades. After sampling all the remaining Spanish populations and the two closest North African ones, we found that the Mediterranean Sea acts as a major barrier against gene flow and that recent habitat fragmentation is isolating Spanish populations at different spatial scales. While we found a historical signal of gene flow among Spanish regions, a coalescent model supported that the ancestral panmictic population is evolving into several different units in the absence of current gene flow, genetic drift being more intense in the smaller and more isolated populations. Moreover, small-scale spatial autocorrelation analyses showed that genetic differentiation is also acting within populations. The spatial genetic structure, significant levels of inbreeding and high relatedness within patches raise concerns on the viability of most of the extant populations. We highlight the urgency for steppe patches to be protected, expanded and reconnected, considering the genetic clusters identified here rather than the previously considered eco-geographic regions occupied by the species. Meanwhile, translocations could be considered as a complementary, faster management action to attenuate the crowding and genetic effects of population fragmentation and the extinction risk of small populations without compromising the current local adaptations, culture diversity and genetic clusters already known for the species.     

Challenges and opportunities of genetic approaches to biological conservation

I discuss future challenges and opportunities in genetic approaches to biodiversity conservation. Resolving taxonomy uncertainties and identifying diverged evolutionary units within species are both bedevilled by a plethora of definitions: the challenge for the conservation community is to come to an agreed definition of species and for a unit within species for conservation purposes. For genetic management in the wild, the main challenge is to apply well-established genetic principles to management, especially of fragmented populations. Fears about outbreeding depression are preventing rational use of gene flow for genetic rescue; predicting the risk of outbreeding depression is the most important unmet scientific challenge in the field. The major challenge in genetic management of captive populations of threatened animal species is to institute explicit management to minimize genetic adaptation to captivity, so that reintroduction success is maximized. The development of low cost genome sequencing offers many research opportunities and challenges. For example, there are opportunities to identify genes involved in speciation and a major challenge is to devise molecular tests to predict reproductive isolation between populations. Genomics offers opportunities to provide higher precision estimate for many parameters of importance to conservation. A major challenge is to devise means to assess, on a genome-wide basis, genetic diversity that is important to adaptive evolution. There is a challenge to develop simple inexpensive means to monitor genetic diversity of species on a global scale. Many of the most important practical challenges concern application of current genetic knowledge to the management of threatened species.     

Genetic Diversity Among Traditional Ethiopian Highland Maize Accessions Assessed by Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) Markers

Over the past three centuries, maize has become adapted to complex environmental conditions in the highlands of Ethiopia. We analyzed 62 traditional Ethiopian highland maize accessions, using 20 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and 15 morphological traits, to assess genetic diversity and relationships among these accessions and to assess the level of correlation between phenotypic and genetic distances. The accessions varied significantly for all of the measured morphological traits. The average number of alleles per locus was 4.9. Pair-wise genetic dissimilarity coefficients ranged from 0.27 to 0.63 with a mean of 0.49. Ward minimum variance cluster analysis showed that accessions collected from the Northern agroecology were distinct from the Western and Southern agroecologies. However, there was no differentiation between the Western and Southern accessions. This suggested gene flow between these regions. The relationship between morphological and SSR-based distances was significant and positive (r = 0.43, p = 0.001). The high genetic diversity observed among these set of accessions, suggests ample opportunity for the development of improved varieties for different agroecologies of Ethiopia. From conservation perspective, sampling many accessions from all agroecologies would be an effective way of capturing genetic variation for future collections and conservation.     

Extension of landscape-based population viability models to ecoregional scales for conservation planning

Landscape-based population models are potentially valuable tools in facilitating conservation planning and actions at large scales. However, such models have rarely been applied at ecoregional scales. We extended landscape-based population models to ecoregional scales for three species of concern in the Central Hardwoods Bird Conservation Region and compared model projections against long-term trend data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey. We used a spatially-explicit demographic model and structured the regional population into ecological subsections on the basis of habitat, landscape patterns, and demographic rates to assess species viability. Our model projections were within 2% of the Breeding Bird Survey trends over the last 40 years for each species. Wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) populations remained relatively stable over the simulation and worm-eating warbler (Helmitheros vermivorus) abundance increased throughout most of the time period until reaching carrying capacity. In contrast, the prairie warbler (Dendroica discolor) population steadily declined by 0.59% annually. The combination of habitat and demographic modeling allowed us to create models that address processes driving these populations at all scales, which is critical to understanding how regional populations respond to landscape processes such as habitat loss and fragmentation. Therefore, because it is spatially explicit and directly addresses population growth and viability, this approach provides a valuable foundation to planning conservation strategies, offering the ability to identify the most salient risks to viability and explore ways to address them.     

RAPD and AFLP assessment of genetic variation in a landrace of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), grown in North-West Italy

In several regions of Italy as well as other parts of southern Europe, the heterogeneity of the land, the climate and the soil favour the survival in cultivation of a large number of landraces specifically adapted to local conditions. Knowledge on the level and distribution of their genetic variation can help to develop appropriate strategies, in order to suistainably manage in situ these germplasm resources at risk of genetic erosion. C. annuum is an herbaceous diploid species and is considered to be self-pollinating, although different rates of out-crossing have been recorded. We used random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers to assess genetic diversity within and between five populations of a landrace of Capsicum annuum L., grown in a limited area in north-west Italy and locally known as Cuneo pepper. Partitioning the genetic variation with Shannon's diversity index revealed that 41.6% occurred between and 58.4% within populations. Analogous results were obtained when the analysis was based only on RAPD or AFLP markers. However, AFLP was more reliable, since a lower range of variation was observed among primer combinations in detecting the two components of genetic variation. Notwithstanding the rather high level of within genetic variation detected, the five populations were clearly differentiated and differed in the frequency of alleles exclusive and/or present at very low frequencies. Our results show the need for accurate estimation of allele frequencies, in order to identify populations to which priority should be given for dynamic conservation of landraces.     

Genetic differentiation among populations of a specialist fishing bat suggests lack of suitable habitat connectivity

Specialist species face higher extinction risks as a result of smaller, isolated populations with reduced gene flow. The large-footed myotis (Myotis macropus) is the only microbat in Australia specialised for foraging directly over water surfaces. Such highly specialised feeding ecology restricts the distribution of M. macropus to coastal regions and inland waterways. Using five novel and two existing nuclear microsatellite markers, we investigated genetic diversity within and among five M. macropus populations in Victoria. Significant genetic differentiation was detected between all populations. F_ST values between populations ranged from 0.02 to 0.24. We suggest that the movement of M. macropus throughout the landscape is constrained by the availability of permanent waterways and associated riparian habitats. These findings represent important considerations for the conservation of this specialist species and the management of riparian vegetation, particularly on private land.     

Genetic differences between the two remaining wild populations of the endangered Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

The management of rare and endangered species in the wild and in captivity requires an understanding of the characterization of the genetic units within each species and their relationships to each other. The Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is an endangered species with a current population size of c. 2800 individuals. We analyzed 26 individuals of known origin kept in captivity and 21 wild ranging individuals of the two remnant large wild populations in Assam (India) and Nepal employing mitochondrial and microsatellite markers to determine whether the two geographically isolated populations show distinct patterns of genetic diversity, and whether the genetic diversity of the populations is influenced by past demographic bottlenecks. We identified 10 different mitochondrial D-loop haplotypes, of which 4 were specific to the Assam population (10 sequences examined) and 6 specific to the Nepal population (19 sequences). Similarly, the microsatellite analysis demonstrated a strong genetic differentiation between the Assam and Nepal populations and allowed to assign each individual to its origin with high confidence. Furthermore, our analyses revealed the occurrence of a bottleneck in the Assam population long before the reported bottleneck in 1908, and it revealed that the Nepal population is a recent (probably post-glacial) colonization. In summary, the extent of genetic divergence between the two remnant R. unicornis populations suggests separate conservation programs (even for captive individuals) as long as the persistence of the entire species is not severely threatened. The microsatellite markers can also be used to determine the origin of confiscated material such as horns.     

Phylogeographic study based on intraspecific sequence variation of chloroplast DNA for the conservation of genetic diversity in the Japanese endangered species Primula sieboldii

To gather information on intraspecific phylogeography for use in conservation programs for the endangered species Primula sieboldii in Japan, we analyzed sequence variation in five noncoding regions of chloroplast DNA. Twenty-two distinct haplotypes were recognized in total. The distribution of most haplotypes was geographically confined, but one haplotype was widely distributed throughout northern Japan, and several haplotypes were found in geographically distant regions. Three major clades were revealed by phylogenetic analysis of the haplotypes. Clade I was distributed in Kyushu and central Honshu, clade II in western Honshu and Hokkaido, and clade III from central Honshu to Hokkaido. According to analysis of molecular variance, 59.9% of the total cpDNA variation existed among regions, 32.5% among populations within regions, and 7.6% within populations. Therefore, if genetic conservation of the species is valued, transplanting of P. sieboldii among regions should be avoided. Multiple lineages often existed even in geographically narrow areas (e.g., within a 20-km range), so transplantation between adjacent populations in restoration activities should be carefully designed so as not to change the gene pool of local populations significantly. Also, the geographical distribution of cpDNA haplotypes may allow us to confirm the origin of plants collected for commercial purposes.     

Erratum to: Ecological,morphological and genetic diversity in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oryza rufipogon</Emphasis> Griff. (Poaceae) from Hainan Island,China

In this study, ecological, morphological and genetic diversity in 11 surviving populations of Oryza rufipogon Griff. from Hainan Island, China were investigated. These data served to provide much needed data in support of conservation strategies. The results divided O. rufipogon into six ecotypes. The cluster analysis based on 19 morphological features showed clear differentiation among populations or within populations. The cluster analysis based on SSR also revealed similar results. The ecological, morphological and genetic diversity observed in O. rufipogon resulted in the following conservation recommendations: (1) the four currently protected O. rufipogon localities should be maintained, due to the different ecological communities represented at these sites; (2) some populations, such as HL (Hele county, Hainan Island), should be protected, but some populations, such as FC (Fucheng county, Hainan Island) and DL (Dalu county, Hainan Island), might not be protected. (3) An isolation zone should be established to avoid possible introgression between O. sativa L. and O. rufipogon; and human activities that impact O. rufipogon should be reduced or eliminated.     

Integrating occupancy modeling and interview data for corridor identification: A case study for jaguars in Nicaragua

Corridors are critical elements in the long-term conservation of wide-ranging species like the jaguar (Panthera onca). Jaguar corridors across the range of the species were initially identified using a GIS-based least-cost corridor model. However, due to inherent errors in remotely sensed data and model uncertainties, these corridors warrant field verification before conservation efforts can begin. We developed a novel corridor assessment protocol based on interview data and site occupancy modeling. We divided our pilot study area, in southeastern Nicaragua, into 71, 6 × 6 km sampling units and conducted 160 structured interviews with local residents. Interviews were designed to collect data on jaguar and seven prey species so that detection/non-detection matrices could be constructed for each sampling unit. Jaguars were reportedly detected in 57% of the sampling units and had a detection probability of 28%. With the exception of white-lipped peccary, prey species were reportedly detected in 82–100% of the sampling units. Though the use of interview data may violate some assumptions of the occupancy modeling approach for determining ‘proportion of area occupied’, we countered these shortcomings through study design and interpreting the occupancy parameter, psi, as ‘probability of habitat used’. Probability of habitat use was modeled for each target species using single state or multistate models. A combination of the estimated probabilities of habitat use for jaguar and prey was selected to identify the final jaguar corridor. This protocol provides an efficient field methodology for identifying corridors for easily-identifiable species, across large study areas comprised of unprotected, private lands.     

Population evaluation in crop wild relatives for <Emphasis Type="Italic">in situ</Emphasis> conservation: a case study for raspberry <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rubus idaeus</Emphasis> L. in the Leningrad region,Russia

Many crop wild relatives are usually widely distributed species, and in this relation a question arises about selecting populations of special importance for conservation. Using Rubus idaeus as an example, we propose a compound selection of wild populations for in situ conservation. Twelve raspberry populations in the Leningrad region have been evaluated from the point of view of their significance for in situ conservation. To exclude the run-wild forms from the evaluation process, we tried to identify them applying a mathematical model developed by statusmetry method. The constructed model is based on morphological features of leaves of primocanes and helps to distinguish the wild forms from the cultivated and run-wild ones. The wild raspberry populations were screened for plants with features useful for cultivated raspberry improvement such as waxy cover presence, yellow fruiting plants, spinelessness, fruiting primocanes and others. The diversity of wild raspberry populations was assessed by variation of morphological features, presence of botanical varieties and polymorphism of seed storage proteins. The results of viability status assessment for the chosen populations reflect the perspectives of their development and permit to determine the strategy and measures for optimal conservation.     

RAPD variation in a germplasm collection of Myracrodruon urundeuva (Anacardiaceae), an endangered tropical tree: Recommendations for conservation

RAPD markers were used to investigate the distribution of genetic variability in a germplasm collection of the dioecious tropical tree Aroeira (Myracrodruon urundeuva) composed of open pollinated maternal half-sib families collected from trees at least 300 meters apart and grouped in nine collection areas throughout its geographical range in Brazil. Open pollinated families from nearby trees from two natural populations were also included in the study. A Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCO) based on genetic similarities estimated with 83 RAPD markers showed no defined clustering among individuals from the same collection areas. However, a matrix correlation test showed low, but significant correlation between genetic and geographic distances (r = 0.17; p < 0.02). An AMOVA showed that 92% of the genetic variation is found within collection areas. Significant variation was found both between regions and between areas within regions although only 3.54 and 4.44% of the variation was found at these levels respectively. An AMOVA on the individuals from the two natural populations resulted in a pattern of distribution congruent to the one found for the collection areas, with 97% of variability within populations. An analysis of 10 open-pollinated half-sib families revealed that between 75% and 89% of the variability is contained within families, suggesting that seeds from one tree represent a significant proportion of the variability found in the population. These results indicate that, either for the establishment of in situ genetic reserves or for ex situ conservation, efforts should be directed to the conservation of several individual trees or collection of open pollinated seed families in a few distant sites. In addition, if resources are available to enlarge the genetic base of the existing collection, expeditions should prioritize collection sites located in areas at significant distances to those already sampled.     

Morphovariability of capulín (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Prunus serotina</Emphasis> Ehrh.) in the central-western region of Mexico from a plant genetic resources perspective

The capulín, or black cherry tree (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) is a tree with edible fruits native to North America that has been used not just as a source of food but also as a source of energy (its wood) since prehispanic times. Mexico has three of the five botanical subspecies in the P. serotina botanical complex, which have not yet been characterized for agricultural purposes. It is desirable to determine whether capulín trees comprise a homogeneous group or whether there are separate morpho-types. This study focuses on the morphological variability of seven populations from the western and central regions of Mexico. We used the Hill & Smith Analysis and graphical methods to analyze and interpret data with respect to 22 quantitative morphological characters and 17 qualitative morphological characters, all from different plant organs. Two major geographically and morphologically related groups were clearly identified, and the morphological variability in the study zone was related to taxonomic, genetic and agronomic factors. The results are discussed from a genetic resources perspective. The genetic, cultural, ecological and agronomic implications of these results are also considered, as well as the potential uses for the species. From these results, an agro-morphological characterization can be developed, in order to identify interesting types of capulín for fruit and seed production in agro-industry, or as rootstock for related species and forestry uses. Our results have implications for the conservation and sustainable use of capulín genetic resources in the central and western regions of Mexico.     

Genetic diversity of the African wild rice (Oryza longistaminata Chev. et Roehr) from Ethiopia as revealed by SSR markers

Data from microsatellite markers have been extensively used for both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies by determining the level of genetic diversity of natural populations that can widen the gene pool of cultivated plants. Such conservation practices are based on understanding of the between and within population genetic variations and partitioning populations on the basis of geographic origin. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the genetic diversity of Oryza longistaminata Chev. et Roehr and how this variation is partitioned within and between the eight O. longistaminata populations found in the different geographic regions of Ethiopia using simple sequence repeat markers. Five microsatellite markers in 320 samples generated 64 alleles that revealed the presence of large amount of genetic variability (Ho = 0.225; He = 0.768; Na = 7.375; Ne = 6.565 and P = 0.744). The F-statistics detected by the microsatellite loci showed Fst = 0.064 and Fis = 0.743 and there was no population in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. The genetic diversity results obtained from this data indicated that there are high levels of genetic diversity in the populations of O. longistaminata studied and it is higher within than between populations. Among the eight populations sampled, five populations were identified as priorities for conservation strategies. Thus, national collection and conservation strategies need to consider these populations.