Molecular genetics of human color vision: the genes encoding blue, green, and red pigments

Human color vision is based on three light-sensitive pigments. The isolation and sequencing of genomic and complementary DNA clones that encode the apoproteins of these three pigments are described. The deduced amino acid sequences show 41 +/- 1 percent identity with rhodopsin. The red and green pigments show 96 percent mutual identity but only 43 percent identity with the blue pigment. Green pigment genes vary in number among color-normal individuals and, together with a single red pigment gene, are proposed to reside in a head-to-tail tandem array within the X chromosome.     

Molecular genetics of inherited variation in human color vision

The hypothesis that red-green "color blindness" is caused by alterations in the genes encoding red and green visual pigments has been tested and shown to be correct. Genomic DNA's from 25 males with various red-green color vision deficiencies were analyzed by Southern blot hybridization with the cloned red and green pigment genes as probes. The observed genotypes appear to result from unequal recombination or gene conversion (or both). Together with chromosome mapping experiments, these data identify each of the cloned human visual pigment genes.     

Cassette of eight exons shared by genes for LDL receptor and EGF precursor

The amino acid sequences of the human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor and the human precursor for epidermal growth factor (EGF) show 33 percent identity over a stretch of 400 residues. This region of homologous is encoded by eight contiguous exons in each respective gene. Of the nine introns that separate these exons, five are located in identical positions in the two protein sequences. This finding suggests that the homologous region may have resulted from a duplication of an ancestral gene and that the two genes evolved further by recruitment of exons from other genes, which provided the specific functional domains of the LDL receptor and the EGF precursor.     

Structure and diversity of the human T-cell receptor beta-chain variable region genes

In order to characterize the variability of the expressed human T-cell receptor (TCR) beta-chain repertoire and contrast this variability to the known murine beta-chain repertoire, 15 independent complementary DNA (cDNA) clones containing TCR beta-chain variable region (V beta) genes were isolated from a human tonsil cDNA library. The nucleotide and derived amino acid sequences of these 15 V beta genes were analyzed together with 7 previously defined sequences. Fifteen different human V beta genes could be identified from 22 independent sequences. By means of DNA hybridization and sequence homology comparisons, it was possible to group these 15 genes into ten distinct V beta subfamilies, each containing from one to seven members. Minimal polymorphism was noted between individuals, except in multimember subfamilies. The amino acid sequences of these genes contain conserved amino acids that are also shared by murine TCR V beta genes and immunoglobulins; no features were found that distinguish human V beta genes from their murine counterparts. Evaluation of secondary structure showed that maximum variability coincides with generally hydrophilic portions of the amino acid sequence, while specific hydrophobic regions were conserved in all V beta genes examined.     

绿小米和白小米谷子籽粒叶绿素合成途径结构基因的表达分析

【目的】不同种类色素积累使小米呈现出不同的颜色性状。通过对比绿色小米和白色小米间的米色表型差异、不同色差指标值、叶绿素含量、籽粒内部超微结构和叶绿素合成途径结构基因的表达差异,找出导致绿色和白色小米颜色差异的关键酶基因,探索绿色小米米色形成的分子机制。【方法】利用色差仪对米色（L*、a*、b*）值进行测定;采用紫外分光光度计法分别对绿小米和白小米籽粒中叶绿素a、b及总叶绿素含量进行测定;通过透射电镜观察分析处于灌浆中期的小米籽粒内部淀粉体和质体小球的大小和数量;同时采用qRT-PCR方法对叶绿素合成途径上游和下游共18个结构基因在不同米色表型的3个品种中的表达模式进行了分析;并以谷子幼苗叶片DNA为模板,对不同米色品种谷子中SiCAO全长进行克隆及序列比对分析。【结果】大青谷和露米青谷脱壳后的小米颜色为绿色,牛毛白的小米颜色为白色,且色差仪检测结果显示绿色小米的绿度指标a*值低于白色小米;2个绿色小米籽粒中的Chla、Chlb和Chl含量均显著高于白色小米籽粒,且在白色小米籽粒中仅检测到0.006 mg·g^-1的Chlb;qRT-PCR结果显示,SiCAO在白米品种籽粒中几乎不表达,而其在2个绿小米品种籽粒中都有高峰度表达,SiCAO在不同米色品种中的极显著差异表达是它们呈现米色表型差异的主要原因;从3个品种中分别克隆出开放阅读框架为1 626 bp的SiCAO,它们分别在第171、184、195、286、318个氨基酸处存在差异;超微结构观察表明,谷子籽粒胚乳层主要由单粒淀粉体构成,绿小米较白小米中的淀粉体个体较大、着色深,且绿小米淀粉体周围充满了质体小球及圆球体,这种差异可能对籽粒中色素积累产生影响。【结论】SiCAO在绿米品种籽粒中的过量表达和在白米品种籽粒中的不表达是导致绿色和白色小米籽粒叶绿素含量差异,进而使得它们分别呈现绿色和白色表型的主要原因之一。     

三个水稻联乙烯还原酶基因突变体的比较研究

 【Objective】 The present study was aimed at investigating the differences of mutant phenotypes resulting from different mutations in base sequence of rice divinyl reductase gene OsDVR (Os03g22780), and evaluating application potential of this gene in rice breeding as a leaf color marker gene. 【Method】The yellow-green leaf mutants isolated from Indica rice variety G46B and japonica rice variety Nipponbare via ethyl methanesulfonate mutagenesis were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to screen the mutants accumulating divinyl chlorophyll. Then genetic analysis, gene mapping and allelism test of the target mutants were performed. Subsequently, DNA sequencing of OsDVR gene in these mutants and alignment of the deduced amino acid sequences of homologous DVR proteins were conducted, and leaf photosynthetic pigments, plant phenotypes and main agronomic traits of the mutants were investigated. 【Result】590ys and 525ys, two novel mutants accumulating divinyl chlorophyll, were obtained by screening 53 yellow-green leaf mutants isolated from ethyl methanesulfonate mutagenesis. Their mutant phenotypes were all controlled by a pair of recessive nuclear gene and moreover, the mutant genes were all mapped on the chromosomal region harbouring the 824ys mutant gene reported. Furthermore, allelism test confirmed that the mutant genes of 590ys and 525ys were allelic to that of 824ys. So 590ys, 525ys and 824ys mutants were all OsDVR mutants. However, mutational sites of OsDVR mutant gene and their encoded protein product in the three mutants were different, which resulted in extremely significant differences of chlorophyll contents and compositions, plant phenotypes, main agronomic traits and yields per plant among the three mutants. Among them, 525ys mutant had slight yellow leaves, and its growth and development, main agronomic traits and yield per plant were affected relatively less, indicating that 525ys mutant gene can basically meet the requirements as a leaf color marker gene introduced into rice male sterile lines. 【Conclusion】Different mutations in base sequence of OsDVR gene could result in extremely significant differences of mutant phenotype and yield per plant. The OsDVR mutant gene could be applicable in hybrid rice breeding as a leaf color marker gene.     

Complementary DNA coding click beetle luciferases can elicit bioluminescence of different colors

Eleven complementary DNA (cDNA) clones were generated from messenger RNA isolated from abdominal light organs of the bioluminescent click beetle, Pyrophorus plagiophthalamus. When expressed in Escherichia coli, these clones can elicit bioluminescence that is readily visible. The clones code for luciferases of four types, distinguished by the colors of bioluminescence they catalyze: green (546 nanometers), yellow-green (560 nanometers), yellow (578 nanometers), and orange (593 nanometers). The amino acid sequences of the different luciferases are 95 to 99 percent identical with each other, but are only 48 percent identical with the sequence of firefly luciferase (Photinus pyralis). Because of the different colors, these clones may be useful in experiments in which multiple reporter genes are needed.     

苹果SBP基因家族生物信息学分析

首先利用生物信息学方法对苹果42条SBP蛋白序列的系统发生和SBP基因组定位进行分析,然后对其氨基酸组成成分、理化性质以及二级和三级结构进行预测和分析,同时还分析了苹果与拟南芥的SBP基因家族之间的联系。结果显示着42条蛋白序列与拟南芥16条SBP蛋白序列一起被分成了7个亚族,拟南芥与苹果SBP基因间具有较高的保守性。基因组定位结果显示42条SBP基因分布在12条染色体上。研究还发现不同亚族间氨基酸数目、氨基酸序列疏水性存在一定的差异;二级结构预测分析发现,42条氨基酸序列以随机卷曲和α-螺旋为主要组成部分,而且42条氨基酸序列三维结构相似。     

Parallel patterns of evolution in the genomes and transcriptomes of humans and chimpanzees

The determination of the chimpanzee genome sequence provides a means to study both structural and functional aspects of the evolution of the human genome. Here we compare humans and chimpanzees with respect to differences in expression levels and protein-coding sequences for genes active in brain, heart, liver, kidney, and testis. We find that the patterns of differences in gene expression and gene sequences are markedly similar. In particular, there is a gradation of selective constraints among the tissues so that the brain shows the least differences between the species whereas liver shows the most. Furthermore, expression levels as well as amino acid sequences of genes active in more tissues have diverged less between the species than have genes active in fewer tissues. In general, these patterns are consistent with a model of neutral evolution with negative selection. However, for X-chromosomal genes expressed in testis, patterns suggestive of positive selection on sequence changes as well as expression changes are seen. Furthermore, although genes expressed in the brain have changed less than have genes expressed in other tissues, in agreement with previous work we find that genes active in brain have accumulated more changes on the human than on the chimpanzee lineage.     

Emergence of novel color vision in mice engineered to express a human cone photopigment

Changes in the genes encoding sensory receptor proteins are an essential step in the evolution of new sensory capacities. In primates, trichromatic color vision evolved after changes in X chromosome-linked photopigment genes. To model this process, we studied knock-in mice that expressed a human long-wavelength-sensitive (L) cone photopigment in the form of an X-linked polymorphism. Behavioral tests demonstrated that heterozygous females, whose retinas contained both native mouse pigments and human L pigment, showed enhanced long-wavelength sensitivity and acquired a new capacity for chromatic discrimination. An inherent plasticity in the mammalian visual system thus permits the emergence of a new dimension of sensory experience based solely on gene-driven changes in receptor organization.     

偶蹄动物朊蛋白基因变异性和其系统发生关系分析

【目的】为明了偶蹄动物PrP基因的结构特征及其变异与结构、功能和朊粒病传染种间屏障的关系以及系统发生关系;【方法】利用DNAstar和Clustalx程序及treev32软件进行了22种偶蹄动物的43个完整PrP基因序列的同源性分析、多重排比和进化树构建;【结果】不同种属偶蹄动物的PrP基因完整ORF大小有所差异,范围为768～795 bp,可编码255～264个氨基酸的朊蛋白。核苷酸和氨基酸序列的同源性,偶蹄动物间≥88.6%和≥93.3%,反刍动物间≥95.4%和≥96.5%。共发现40个点突变和2个突变区。在N-端柔韧无序"尾"区(25～135)以八肽重复缺失为主,球形结构域区(136～241)以点突变为主,点突变主要簇聚在S1 -折叠前的柔韧无规卷曲区的C-端部分和HC -螺旋内。氨基酸104～135区和球形结构域区存在有8个高突变位点。已知PrP肽基元和功能位点如芳烃回文序列基元、2个N-连接糖基化位点、2个苏氨酸磷酸化位点、1个酪氨酸硫化位点、形成二硫键的2个半胱氨酸以及GPI锚锚着点丝氨酸为偶蹄动物所共有,各种间变异体的各结构模式非常一致。进化关系分析,可将偶蹄动物PrP基因区分为3大类,反刍动物PrP基因分为3小类。令人意外的是,2个双峰驼PrP基因的进化关系与牛属动物基因同源。【结论】偶蹄动物的PrP基因是一个保守基因,氨基酸104～135区和球形结构域区内的8个高突变位点可能是影响分子间相互作用、形成朊粒病传染种间屏障的主要位点,物种间各氨基酸变异并不影响PrP的主要结构和功能。     

葡萄GRAS基因家族生物信息学分析

为研究葡萄中GRAS基因家族的特征,本文首先利用生物信息学方法对葡萄91条GRAS蛋白序列的系统发生和GRAS基因组定位进行分析,然后对其氨基酸组成成分、理化性质以及二级和三级结构进行预测和分析,同时还分析了葡萄与拟南芥的GRAS基因家族之间的联系。结果显示这91条蛋白序列与拟南芥35个GRAS基因蛋白序列一起分成了8个亚族,说明拟南芥与葡萄GRAS基因间具有较高的保守性。基因组定位结果发现91条GRAS基因分布在17条染色体上。研究还发现不同亚族间氨基酸数目、氨基酸序列间的疏水性存在一定的差异;而二级结构预测结果发现,91条氨基酸序列以α-螺旋和随机卷曲为主要组成部分,且91条氨基酸序列三维结构相似。     

飞蝗表皮蛋白Obstructor家族基因的分子特性及基于RNAi的功能分析

 【目的】获得飞蝗（Locusta migratoria）表皮蛋白Obstructor（Obst）家族基因的cDNA序列,并研究其序列特征和mRNA表达特性,探讨其生物学功能,为害虫防治提供新的分子靶标。【方法】采用生物信息学方法搜索飞蝗转录组数据库获得Obst家族基因cDNA片段,并进行BLAST分析得到Obst家族基因的cDNA序列;采用RACE技术扩增该家族基因的3′cDNA序列,拼接后获得全长;SignalP在线软件分析蛋白的信号肽,SMART网站预测其功能域,并使用Mega 5.10软件中Neighbor-Joining方法,与黑腹果蝇（Drosophila melanogasterObst家族基因和赤拟谷盗（Tribolium castaneumCPAP3家族基因（Obst家族基因的同源基因）氨基酸序列进行聚类分析;采用real-time quantitative PCR（qPCR）方法检测LmObst家族基因在5龄若虫不同组织部位和不同龄期体壁的表达情况,绘制表达图谱））;采用RNA干扰（RNAi）技术探讨LmObsts对飞蝗发育的影响。【结果】在飞蝗转录组数据库中搜索得到8个Obst家族基因的cDNA片段,通过NCBI进行BLAST分析显示与赤拟谷盗CPAP3、黑腹果蝇Obst高度同源,属于LmObst家族基因片段,其中5个是全长序列,3个序列缺失3′端;采用RACE技术获得3′末端cDNA序列;将得到的8个LmObst家族基因全长序列进行功能域分析,发现具有Obst家族表皮蛋白的特点,即有1个信号肽与3个几丁质结合域ChtBD2;并与黑腹果蝇、赤拟谷盗同源基因进行进化树的构建,根据进化树分析结果,分别命名为LmObst-A1、LmObst-A2、LmObst-B、LmObst-C、LmObst-D1、LmObst-D2、LmObst-E1和LmObst-E2。qPCR结果显示LmObst-E1和LmObst-E2在前肠和后肠高特异性表达,LmObst-D1在体壁和前肠高表达,其他LmObsts在体壁或外胚层内陷形成的前肠和后肠高表达,在胃盲囊、中肠、马氏管和脂肪体中低表达;LmObst家族基因在5龄若虫不同天数体壁的表达趋势比较接近,在5龄前期高表达,中期降到最低,蜕皮前又上升到高水平。采用RNAi技术研究基因的生物学功能,5龄若虫第5天分别注射dsLmObst,对照组注射等量dsGFP,48 h后检测沉默效率,发现目的基因表达量显著降低;进一步观察发现,注射dsLmObst-E1的5龄若虫80%无蜕皮迹象,在5龄若虫状态下死亡,剩余20% 若虫蜕皮延迟1-2 d,并且蜕至成虫后,16 h内全部死亡;其余注射双链的试虫普遍发生蜕皮延迟1-3 d的现象,但未发现其他可见的异常表型。【结论】获得8个飞蝗LmObst家族基因,所有Obst家族蛋白功能域保守,均有1个信号肽与3个几丁质结合域ChtBD2;LmObsts主要参与飞蝗体壁和前、后肠等外胚层发育来源组织器官的形成。LmObst-E1是飞蝗发育所必需的,该基因沉默可导致飞蝗死亡,其他7个LmObsts的沉默导致飞蝗发育延迟1-3 d,但无致死效应。     

Vision in annelid worms

In a first electrophysiological study of worm vision, electroretinograms were measured in two alciopid worms: Torrea, taken at the surface, and deep-sea Vanadis. Both forms possess a primary retina in the focal plane of the lens, and accessory retinas lying beside the lens. Such accessory retinas occur also in deep sea fishes and cephalopods. In Torrea the primary retina peaks in sensitivity at 400 nanometers, the secondary retina at 560 nanometers. Both together could serve as a depth guage, since 560 nanometers attenuates much faster in seawater than 400 nanometers. The Vanadis eyes peaked in sensitivity at 460 to 480 nanometers, a property shared with deep-sea forms of other phyla; and appropriate, since these wavelengths penetrate seawater most deeply, and also are the wavelengths of maximum bioluminescence.     

石榴等观赏植物DFR基因生物信息学分析

根据GenBank中已登录的红花石榴、粉花石榴、姜荷花、芍药、水母雪莲、大丽花、瓜叶菊和兰花等植物二氢黄酮醇4-还原酶(DFR)基因的核苷酸序列和氨基酸序列,应用生物信息学软件对其核苷酸序列的外显子、氨基酸序列的理化性质、疏水性/亲水性和跨膜结构等进行了预测。结果表明,这几种植物DFR基因均存在1个外显子,含量最丰富的氨基酸是Ala、Gly、Cys和Thr;除红花石榴和粉花石榴DFR属于不稳定蛋白外,其余植物均属于稳定蛋白。这几种植物DFR蛋白均为亲水性蛋白,存在明显的疏水区和亲水区以及跨膜结构等。     

Entrainment of the body temperature rhythm in rats: effect of color and intensity of environmental light

The daily rhythm in body temperature in rats was continuously monitored during exposure to low-intensity environmental illumination of various colors in the visible and near-ultraviolet spectrum. The ability of phase shifts in the lighting schedule to induce concomitant changes in the rhythm was used to determine the spectral sensitivity of the retinal photoreceptor systems mediating rhythm entrainment. Green light (lambda = 530 +/- 45 nanometers) was most potent, and red (lambda = 660 +/- 19 nanometers) and ultraviolet (lambda = 360 +/- 34 nanometers) were least potent in entraining the temperature rhythm.     

不同植物查尔酮合成酶CHS基因的生物信息学分析

采用生物信息学方法对GenBank中已登录的10种不同植物中的查尔酮合成酶基因的核苷酸序列及所推测的氨基酸序列的理化性质、信号肽、跨膜结构、亲/疏水性、功能结构域以及其二级结构进行了详细的分析,构建了不同植物CHS的系统进化树。结果表明,10种植物中CHS基因的开放阅读框的全长在1.2 kb左右,大约编码399个氨基酸;不同植物中的CHS的氨基酸序列均包括1个N-糖基化位点(32NMSS),4个蛋白激酶c磷酸化位点(69TIR、158SVK、202TFR、359SAK)和1个查尔酮合成酶活性位点(161RLMMYQQGCFAGGTVLR),均不存在信号肽、无跨膜结构域,是一个疏水性蛋白。     

麻鸭和樱桃谷鸭的CD3ε、CD4、CD8α基因ORF克隆及序列分析

 【目的】分析比较中国部分品种鸭的CD3ε、CD4和CD8α基因ORF序列,为研究CD3ε链、CD4和CD8α链的结构和功能及其抗体的应用提供依据。【方法】利用RT-PCR,对麻鸭、樱桃谷鸭的CD3ε、CD4和CD8α基因ORF序列克隆测定,应用ClustalX（1.83）和DNAstar生物学软件分别与GenBank上公布的北京鸭CD3ε（AF378704）、CD4（AF378701）和CD8α（AF378373）基因ORF序列进行序列分析。【结果】麻鸭、樱桃谷鸭、北京鸭CD3ε和CD4基因ORF序列及所编码的氨基酸同源性为99%;北京鸭和麻鸭CD8α基因ORF序列同源性为99%,与樱桃谷鸭的同源性为95%。麻鸭和北京鸭CD8α基因ORF序基因编码的氨基酸完全一致,与樱桃谷鸭的CD8α存在16处位点差异,其中胞外区有15个氨基酸的差异,使亲水性、抗原性以及此区域位于蛋白质表面的可能性都有明显差异。从遗传发生树得出樱桃谷鸭、北京鸭、麻鸭CD3ε和CD4的ORF序列相互之间的遗传关系近;樱桃谷鸭、麻鸭和北京鸭CD8α基因ORF序列之间的遗传关系较远。【结论】樱桃谷鸭、北京鸭、麻鸭CD3ε和CD4的ORF序列遗传变异性低,樱桃谷鸭与麻鸭和北京鸭CD8α基因ORF之间具有较高遗传变异性。     

几种作物GA受体的同源性比较

目前,在水稻中已克隆出GA受体GID1基因,其功能丧失会导致植株矮化。同时,在拟南芥中也克隆出3个相关的GA受体基因。根据它们氨基酸序列的保守区设计简并引物,在不同作物中进行扩增。扩增产物进行回收及测序,根据这些片段的序列从数据库中得到对应的EST序列和氨基酸序列。结果表明:水稻与高粱、小麦、玉米(GID1A和GID1B)和棉花中GA受体的氨基酸序列具有较高的同源性,分别为81.44%、81.36%、80.50%、79.14%和63.13%。