Diversity of polyporous fungi (Polyporaceae) in northern boreal forests: effects of forest site type and logging intensity

The effects of forest site type and logging intensity on polyporous fungi were studied in subxeric, mesic and herb-rich forests and spruce mires in northern Finland. The species richness of polypores did not follow the fertility gradient of the site types, but was connected with the amount and diversity of coarse woody debris (CWD). The total number of species, and the numbers of indicator and threatened species were equal in subxeric pine forests and in more fertile spruce-dominated stands. The species composition of pine-dominated forests differed conspicuously from that of spruce-dominated site types. The total number of species was not affected by logging intensity, but no virgin forest species or threatened species were found on the sites where the number of cut stumps exceeded 150 stumps ha^?1. Increasing logging intensity decreased the number of polypore observations, indicating reduced substrate availability. The results stress the importance of protecting not only fertile spruce-dominated stands, but also poorer, pine-dominated forests, and sites with high and diverse CWD content.     

Temperate-like stand dynamics in relict Mediterranean-fir (Abies pinsapo, Boiss.) forests from southern Spain

Introduction and statement of the research questions

Gap dynamics have been widely studied in forests of Abies spp. from temperate and boreal regions. The local microclimate and competition for light have been identified as the main factors controlling changes in species composition and canopy structure, however little is known on dynamics of such forests in Mediterranean.

Experimental design and aims

We studied forest structure and dynamics of Abies pinsapo stands in southern Spain, in contrasting habitats and successional status. In addition past regeneration patterns and their relationship to canopy structure, disturbances and forest-use history were investigated.

Results

Stands structure attributes were within the range described for temperate conifer biomes. The age structure revealed two main cohorts comprised of a few > 100 year-old trees and abundant younger trees established in a single recruitment event after the stands were protected in the 1950s. Initial growth-rate analyses indicated that A. pinsapo regenerated mainly in small canopy gaps, while only 15% recruited from the forest understorey. For the last ten years, basal area increment was lower than 10 cm² y^?1 in 91% of studied trees and growth rate differences between trees narrowed.

Conclusion

Stand dynamics in A. pinsapo forests maintain general features of temperate fir forests. Tree establishment over time and current stand structure fit to known changes in forest use. Widespread growth decline trends might be linked to stand stagnation and global warming.     

Centuries-old logging legacy on spatial and temporal patterns in understory herb communities

Understory herb communities in the Southern Appalachians are among the highest biodiversity plant communities in North America. In the mid-1990s, a debate began over whether understory herb communities recover to their pre-disturbance states following logging. Studies showing reduced herb-layer diversity in previously logged forests were criticized for not accounting for intersite environmental heterogeneity. More recent studies have addressed environmental heterogeneity, but have neglected long-term recovery by using “mature forests” as young as 80 years old as the benchmark for diversity comparison, even though old growth stands have disturbance return intervals exceeding 500 years. Here we address concerns clouding previous studies of high-diversity Appalachian herb communities and investigate their long-term recovery by comparing paired sites of old growth forest and forest logged 100–150 years ago. We found that species richness and individual abundance is greater in old growth forests than mature forests and that species composition differed significantly between the two. Turnover in species among old growth and mature forests accounted for 11% of the total species richness and was significantly greater than expected. Species turnover at intermediate (5–50 m) and landscape-scales (>10 km) contributed the most towards total species richness. Herb communities in rich cove forests have successional trajectories that exceed 150 years, with important community changes still occurring long after the forest returns to what has been previously termed a “mature” state. To conserve the diverse herb layer, we conclude that mature forest stands are too young to serve as baselines for recovery, landscape-scale preservation of multiple forest stands is needed to maximize species richness, and maintaining 100–150-year logging rotations will likely lead to loss of biodiversity.     

Planning timber harvest of residual forest stands without compromising bird and small mammal communities in boreal landscapes

Numerous efforts have been invested in designing and configuring residual forest stands in Canadian boreal forest to preserve their overall biodiversity. Now that several landscapes have been partially logged, the next issue in forest management involves the planning of residual forest stand harvesting without compromising wildlife populations. Residual stands can be cut when adjacent regeneration reaches 3 m in height according to current regulations in several Canadian provinces (e.g., Québec, Ontario, Alberta, and British-Columbia). However, little is known on whether such regenerating habitat (RE-3m) can maintain wildlife communities similar to those found in unharvested mature forest (CO). We estimated the relative abundance of small mammals and forest birds in RE-3m and CO habitats and characterized landscape and stand structures. These variables were then compared between the two contrasting successional stages and were used to build habitat use models (HUMs) for 21 species. CO and RE-3m differed with regard to several landscape characteristics and stand structure variables as a result of logging. Snowshoe Hare, Northern Flicker, Alder Flycatcher, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, White-throated Sparrow and Magnolia Warbler were more abundant in RE-3m than CO, while Red-backed Vole, Brown Creeper and Golden-crowned Kinglet exhibited lower abundances in RE-3m. No significant differences in abundance were observed for the 12 other species. Species HUMs were highly significant and explained between 64.3 and 99.1% of the total variability in abundance. Following variance partitioning, stand structure variables accounted for most of the explained variability (54.2%) while landscape characteristics accounted for only 28.7%. No difference in species richness was observed but community evenness was greater in CO than RE-3m. Our results suggest that current regulations may threaten the maintenance of 3 out of 21 censused species for which abundances were significantly lower in regenerating 3 m tall stands. As stand structure explained a large amount of variability in abundance, it should be considered during timber harvest planning in both mature and regenerating stands. Until we know more on whether the current regulations are suitable for maintaining overall biodiversity, our results suggest that some mature forest stands should be maintained within managed landscapes for a complete logging rotation period.     

Epiphytic lichen diversity in late-successional Pinus sylvestris forests along local and regional forest utilization gradients in eastern boreal Fennoscandia

Pinus sylvestris-dominated forests have been heavily utilized across all of boreal Fennoscandia and the remaining natural forests are generally highly fragmented. However, there are considerable local and regional differences in the intensity and duration of past forest utilization. We studied the impact of human forest use on the diversity of epiphytic and epixylic lichens in late-successional Pinus sylvestris-dominated forests by assessing species richness and composition along both local and regional gradients in forest utilization. The effects of local logging intensity were analysed by comparing three types of stands: (i) near-natural, (ii) selectively logged (in the early 20th century) and (iii) managed stands. The effects of regional differences in duration and intensity of past forest use were analysed by comparing stands in two contrasting regions (Häme and Kuhmo–Viena). The species richness of selectively logged stands was as high as that of near-natural stands and significantly higher in these two stand categories than in managed stands. Species richness increased with the density of small understorey Picea, which correlated strongly with decreasing intensity of local forest use and increasing structural complexity of selectively logged and near-natural stands. Stands in the Häme region hosted a lower number of species, and were less likely to host many old-growth indicator species than the Kuhmo–Viena region, suggesting that species have been lost from stands in the Häme region due to a longer history of intensive forest use. We conclude that selectively logged stands, along with near-natural stands, are valuable lichen habitats particularly for species confined to old-growth structures such as coarse trees and deadwood. In landscapes where natural forests have become fragmented, the management or restoration of the remaining late-successional Pinus-dominated forests, e.g. through the use of fire, should be carefully planned to avoid adverse effects on lichen species richness.     

Remote sensing analysis of forest damage by selection logging in the Kabaung Reserved Forest, Bago Mountains, Myanmar

Selection logging is a principal management scheme in natural teak-bearing forests in Myanmar. Monitoring the spatial extent and intensity of selection logging is important for sustainable forest management. This study applied the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) image differencing method using two SPOT-5 pan-sharpened images (2.5 m spatial resolution) taken in October 2007 and January 2009 to analyze canopy changes associated with damage from forest harvesting. According to the pixel-based analysis, NDVI changes were larger in most logging road/log landing points whereas smaller NDVI changes were seen in most unlogged points. NDVI changes in teak stump areas were related to distance from a logging road and the number of stumps within the estimated crown area (a circular area with a 10 m radius from the center of each stump). A Fisher’s exact test showed that one of the main factors causing the high NDVI change in teak stump areas was the effect of road construction. The distribution pattern of teak stumps indicated that teak stumps with estimated crown areas that contained more than one stump had high mean change in NDVI. The spectral difference between before and after logging revealed that logging roads had a greater effect on canopy changes than teak stumps.     

Behaviour of an Armillaria in some Eucalyptus obliqua – Eucalyptus regnans forests in Tasmania and its role in their decline

An undescribed but native species of Armillaria is a secondary pathogen in declining stands of Eucalyptus obliqua and Eucalyptus regnans in southern Tasmania. The fungus is almost ubiquitous in healthy and diseased forest and occurred epiphytically or parasitically in local lesions on the roots of 74 % of eucalypts partially excavated in 15 forest stands, 25–75 years of age. The fungus infected 85 % of logging stumps and 64 % of fire killed trees. Although the fungus only infected the sapwood of the eucalypts, it survived in infected stumps for at least 70 years. Rhizomorphs initiated most infections but did not grow freely through the soil. Pathogenicity tests confirmed that the Armillaria is a weak pathogen.     

Forest management conditioning ground ant community structure and composition in temperate conifer forests in the Pyrenees Mountains

The search for indicators to monitor management impact on biodiversity is a crucial question because management practices promote changes in community structure and composition of different animal groups. This study explores the effect of widely conducted management practices (forest logging and livestock) in Pinus uncinata forests in the Pyrenees range (NE Spain) on the structure and composition of ground ant communities compared to those of old-growth stands. Forest structure clearly differed in stands with different forest managements. These stands managed for different uses also showed marked differences in structure and composition of ground ant communities. There was a great dominance of a single species, Formica lugubris, which accounted for 99% of ants collected in pitfall traps. Rarefaction curves indicated that species richness was highest in old-growth stands and lowest in even-aged ones, with woodland pasture stands showing an intermediate value. Classification methods allowed us to identify two groups of species: six species related to old-growth plots and three species (including F. lugubris) associated to managed stands. Habitat structure played an important role in determining the structure of ant communities: forests with high tree density but low basal area were the most favourable forest type for F. lugubris, while the abundance of the remaining ant species was negatively affected by the abundance of F. lugubris and by tree cover.     

The effects of burning and dead-wood creation on the diversity of pioneer wood-inhabiting fungi in managed boreal spruce forests

The loss of natural forest habitats due to forestry is the main reason for the decline in boreal forest biodiversity of the Nordic countries of Europe. Ecological rehabilitation may provide means to recover and sustain biodiversity. We analyzed the effects of controlled burning and dead-wood creation (DWC) on the diversity of pioneer wood-inhabiting fungi in managed Norway spruce (Picea abies) forests in southern Finland. Altogether 18 stands were first subjected to a partial cutting with ordinary logging residues in form of cut stumps and treetops left on site. The subsequent rehabilitation treatments consisted of a controlled burning applied in half of the stands and three levels of dead-wood creation (5, 30 and 60 m³ ha⁻¹). The DWC involved creation of logs; felling of whole trees to mimic downed logs formed by natural disturbance processes. Each treatment was replicated three times. Inside each stand, substrates were sampled in two different biotopes; one on mineral soil and one on mineral soil with a thin peat layer. We surveyed the fungal flora on the logs (n = 364) and the ordinary residue stumps (n = 1767) and tops (n = 845) five years after the treatments.When comparing different stands, controlled burning had a significant effect on species composition; certain species were significantly more frequent on substrates in burned stands than in unburned stands, indicating that these species were favored by controlled burning. By contrast, we found no significant effects of DWC levels or biotope on species composition or richness. When comparing different substrates, 99% of the logs hosted at least one species and the occurrence probability of certain species was significantly higher on logs than on ordinary residue stumps and tops. Yet, volume-based rarefaction analyses showed that residues were more species dense than the logs, indicating that ordinary logging residues constitute important resources for many pioneer species.We conclude that controlled burning combined with DWC have strong effects on biodiversity; it modifies the composition of the pioneer wood-inhabiting fungal species found in managed forests and may thereby also influence the further succession and diversity of the secondary fungal flora.     

The effects of selective logging on stand structure and the regeneration of subboreal forests in Hokkaido, northern Japan

We investigated the effects of selective logging on stand structure and regeneration in selectively logged subboreal forests in Taisetsuzan National Park in Hokkaido in northern Japan. The basal area decreased and the size structure of trees altered in the stands studied due to repeated, intense selective logging, in which larger trees were cut down as a priority. Sapling density in the stands was much lower than that in primary forests. In the simple and multiple regression analyses that were used to estimate the effects of selective logging on sapling density, sapling density had a significant positive correlation with tree density and had little correlation with the density of logged stumps or the height ofSasa (dwarf bamboo) growing on the forest floor. These results suggest that the establishment sites around canopy trees influenced the establishment of saplings, rather than the gaps caused by selective logging. However, both the coefficient of determination and the standardized partial regression coefficient of multiple regression analysis were higher for the stand with a dense cover ofSasa than for the stand with a sparse cover ofSasa. Thus, the success of regenerating forests with selective logging depends on both the site of advanced regeneration and the light conditions that regulate growth.     

Changes in forest resource utilization and forest landscapes in the southern Abukuma Mountains,Japan during the twentieth century

Land use and landscape changes, which have much effect on local biodiversity, are driven primarily by socioeconomic forces. Understanding these forces is important for preservation of current biodiversity. In this study, we clarified the socioeconomic forces that have brought about changes in the forest landscape around the Ogawa Forest Reserve in the southern Abukuma Mountains, Japan, by interviewing local residents and reviewing local historical documents. Furthermore, we reconstructed past forest landscapes and quantified the changes that have occurred from the beginning of the twentieth century until the present by use of old land-use maps and past aerial photographs. The use of forest resources has dramatically changed during the past hundred years, and it can be divided into three periods corresponding to the level of economic development. The main landscape has changed significantly from one mainly composed of expansive grasslands and broad-leaved forests into a mosaic of fragmented secondary forests and coniferous plantations. These landscape changes reflect shifts in both the use of forest resources by local residents and the management of the national forests. Clarifying temporal–spatial landscape changes by understanding the historical relationship between humans and the landscape provides useful information for optimizing conservation and management planning.     

Climate shapes the novel plant communities that form after deforestation in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands

Environmental and past land use controls on tree species assemblages on the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were characterized to determine whether biophysical factors or land-use history has been more important in determining the species composition of secondary tropical forests after large-scale forest clearing for agriculture, widespread species introduction, and landscape-scale forest fragmentation. Post-deforestation, secondary forest assemblages are comprehensively described, both as broad general assemblages and island-specific variations by calculating species importance values from forest inventory data. Hierarchical clustering and indicator species analysis defined species assemblages, and then correlations between species assemblages and environmental variables were explored with non-metric multidimensional scaling, analysis of variance and χ² testing. These assemblages are arrayed along environmental gradients of decreasing spring moisture stress, decreasing maximum temperatures, and increasing minimum temperatures. Land-use history is not as important to determining variation in species composition across climatic zones, although several species assemblages are associated with certain geology types or land-use histories. Naturalized tree species are prominent in these secondary forests and contribute to the formation of some novel assemblages, but native late and early successional species also colonize former agricultural land, all influenced by the degree of disturbance. We conclude that environmental factors have an overarching effect on forest species composition across the broader range of climatic, geologic and topographic conditions and larger geographic scales, while land-use history influences subtropical secondary forest species assemblages within a specific climatic zone or set of relatively narrow environmental conditions.     

Can habitat prediction models contribute to the restoration and conservation of the threatened tree Abies pinsapo Boiss. in Southern Spain?

We examined the association between habitat variables and the relative impacts of topographic microclimates as a valuable tool for restoration and conservation of Abies pinsapo in southern Spain. We used presence–absence data from A. pinsapo and 79 environmental variables and biomod species distribution models to describe the current and future species habitat across the Sierra de las Nieves Natural Park (southern Spain). A. pinsapo habitat was most strongly associated with microtopographic (solar incidence) and temperature variables, indicating climate-driven changes in microhabitat use. Most of the temperature variation among the study site was attributable to topographic microclimates rather than regional temperature differences, such that differences in microhabitat associations occurred principally between north- and south-facing slopes within the same region. The current potential distribution suggests that around 8.7% (56.44 km²) of the study area is highly suitable for A. pinsapo, with 9.7% (62.84 km²) being moderately suitable. Under different global circulation models and climate change scenarios, the net decrease in suitable habitat is predicted to be 93% of the current distribution by 2040, disappearing altogether by 2099. Our findings also show a sharp reduction of potential restoration areas (1.8% of the current areas). Microclimatic variation generated by the topography offers the microclimate-driven locations of habitat suitability which could shape species’ distribution restoration actions and their responses to environmental change. The approach presented here can provide a rapid assessment of the future conservation status of other important forest tree species in Spain, improving our understanding of the vulnerability of endangered species under climate change, and can be an effective tool for biodiversity conservation, restoration, and management.

     

Long-term ecological impacts of clear-fell logging on tree species diversity in a subtropical forest,southern Japan

Defining the spatial arrangement and length of the cutting cycle in a logged area is crucial for reconciling potential conflicts between timber yields and maintenance of ecosystem services in natural forests. In this study, we investigated long-term impacts of clear-fell logging on timber production and tree species diversity in a subtropical forest on the Ryukyu Islands, using an individual-based simulation model. We assumed six logging scenarios defined by combinations of forest type and regeneration processes, which acted as surrogates for spatial scales of clear-fell logging. These scenarios were simulated under cutting cycles ranging from 20 to 150 years. Short-cutting cycles resulted in dominance by the sprouting species Castanopsis sieboldii. The compositional shift was accelerated by the lack of seed dispersal from surrounding forest areas. The simulations demonstrated that a sustainable logging regime maintaining both yield and tree species diversity requires a cutting cycle longer than 50 years. The simulation results also suggest that the trade-off between the recovery of tree species diversity and timber production is favored more in stands surrounded by mature forest than in isolated stands or stands surrounded by immature forest. Ecological risk assessments based on model simulations provide an alternative to current forest management practices that rely on empirical knowledge.     

Evaluation of environmental functions of tropical forest in Kinabalu Park, Sabah, Malaysia using GIS and remote sensing techniques: Implications to forest conservation planning

Environmental functions of tropical forest can serve as criteria for forest conservation planning in the tropics. The objective of this study is to evaluate the environmental functions of tropical forest in Kinabalu Park, Sabah, Malaysia, using GIS and remote sensing techniques. Field data, statistical data, including weather data with geographic localities, maps and satellite image are collected. Linear regression models are developed for forests of different geological substrates, based on the relationships between altitude and biodiversity (Fisher’s alpha index). Biodiversity conservation function map is derived with the statistical models and a digital elevation model. Coupling with extensive literature review, an evaluation matrix for evaluating soil and water conservation functions including landslide prevention, flood prevention and drought prevention functions, is constructed. To evaluate the soil and water conservation functions, a weighted linear combination method is used with GIS layers of topography, geology, soil depth, rainfall and slope. Forest areas in Kinabalu Park are derived with land cover mapping using Landsat-TM image. Areas having high values of biodiversity conservation, flood and drought prevention functions are covered with mainly lowland rain forest. On the other hand, areas with high values of the landslide prevention function are covered with mainly subalpine forests. Using the environmental functions, a conservation index is computed to represent forests that are important to conservation. Based on theCI, the lowland rain forest receives highest priority in protection. In fact, it is located in the boundary areas of the park and thus exposed to illegal activities. This study would not be possibly accomplished without the map data as well as other data.     

Impact of logging on tree,liana and herb assemblages in a Bornean forest

In the present study, the impact of logging was assessed on the forest structure, richness, and composition of trees, lianas, and ground herbs in Indonesian Borneo. There were no significant differences in tree height, diameter, basal area, or abundance between unlogged and logged forest. Liana abundance was higher in logged than unlogged forest, but the difference was marginally nonsignificant. There was also no significant difference in the percentage cover of ground herbs. Tree species richness was similar between unlogged and logged forest, while liana species richness was higher in logged forest and herb species richness between unlogged forest. Tree and liana compositions differed significantly between unlogged and logged forest, but logging explained only a small part (<7%) of the variance in composition. In contrast to trees and lianas, ground herb composition did not differ significantly between unlogged and logged forest. Our findings indicate that the modest extraction intensity practiced did not have a severely adverse impact on forest structure or plant composition. This highlights the important role that logged forests may play in conserving biodiversity and the need to protect these forests from further disturbance.     

Selective logging and fire as drivers of alien grass invasion in a Bolivian tropical dry forest

Logging is an integral component of most conceptual models that relate human land-use and climate change to tropical deforestation via positive-feedbacks involving fire. Given that grass invasions can substantially alter fire regimes, we studied grass distributions in a tropical dry forest 1–5 yr after selective logging, and experimentally tested the effect of forest fire on populations of invasive grasses. In unlogged forests and in microhabitats created by selective logging we found a total of four alien and 16 native grass species. Grasses covered 2% of unlogged and 4% of logged forest, with grass cover in logged forest concentrated in areas directly disturbed by logging; log landings and roads had relatively greater grass cover (37% and 17%, respectively) than did skid trails (10%) and felling gaps (8%). Total grass cover and grass species richness increased with canopy openness and were greatest in sites most severely disturbed by logging. The grass flora of these disturbed areas was composed mostly of native ruderal species (e.g., Digitaria insularis, Leptochloa virgata), a native bamboo (Guadua paniculata), and Urochloa (Panicum) maxima, a caespitose C₄ pasture grass introduced from Africa. Urochloa maxima formed monodominant stands (up to 91% cover and 2–3 m tall) and grew on 69% of log landings and 38% of roads. To better understand the potentially synergistic effects of logging and fire on the early stages of grass invasion, we tested the effect of a 12-ha experimental fire on U. maxima populations in a selectively logged forest. Three years after the fire, the area covered by alien grass in burned forest increased fourfold from 400 m² (pre-fire) to 1660 m²; over the same period in a logged but unburned (control) area, U. maxima cover decreased from 398 m² to 276 m². Increased canopy openness due to fire-induced tree mortality corresponded with the greater magnitude of grass invasion following fire. Selective logging of this dry forest on the southern edge of the Amazon Basin promotes alien grass invasion; when coupled with fire, the rate of invasion substantially increased. Recognition of the grass-promoting potential of selective logging is important for understanding the possible fates of tropical forests in fire-prone regions.     

Reconstructing 100-150 years of logging history in coastal spruce forest (Picea abies) with special conservation values in central Norway

Coastal spruce forests of central Norway harbour a unique assemblage of epiphytic lichens and are given high priority with respect to conservation of biodiversity. To assess the historical impact of logging during the last 100-150 yrs, 31 remnant stands were studied by means of tree-ring analysis of 2199 trees and the decay stage of 1605 stumps. No stands had been clear-cut, but all had been selectively logged at least twice during the last 150 yrs. Total harvested timber volume ranged from 65 to 409 m³ha-¹ (31-124% of present-day standing volume) and the selective logging kept standing volume low (40-200 m³ha-¹) during 1890-1930. Present-day stand characteristics were strongly correlated with site productivity and topographic position within the ravine valleys. Low amounts of dead wood at sites with high historical logging activity was the only consistent relationship found after covariance of site productivity, topographic position and deciduous trees were taken into account. The results indicate that old-growth stand characteristics, such as reversed J-shaped age distributions and dead wood in advanced decay classes, can be obtained 100-150 yrs after intensive selective logging.     

Relative importance of thinned and clear-cut stands for bryophyte diversity on stumps

The interest in harvesting logging residues in the form of stumps has recently increased markedly in the Nordic countries of Europe due to the steadily growing market for bio-fuel from forestry. Yet, stumps are currently harvested without a solid knowledge of their importance for forest organisms. To assess the relative importance of thinned, clear-cut, and burned clear-cut stands for the diversity of bryophytes on stumps we investigated bryophyte species composition and richness on 755 spruce stumps in 27 forest stands in southern-boreal Finland. Stumps were sampled within both wet and dry sites. For comparison we also surveyed bryophytes on 669 ground plots in the same stands to assess if patterns were consistent regardless of substrate type.Stand type (i.e. thinned, clear-cut, or burned clear-cut) was the main predictor of both species richness and composition on stumps. Stumps in thinned stands were more species rich than in clear-cuts, and the lowest richness was found on stumps in burned clear-cuts. Differences in species composition were explained by higher frequency of occurrence of species in thinned than in clear-cut stands. Thus, stumps in clear-cut stands tended to host a subset of species from the thinned stands, but there was also a pattern of turnover where different species were present in thinned and clear-cut stands, respectively. The results were similar for bryophytes on ground indicating that canopy cover strongly affected the diversity of bryophytes regardless of substrate.We conclude that stump harvest in open, clear-cut stands will probably have minor effects on bryophyte diversity on dead wood in the managed forest landscape. Conservation efforts in thinned stands (e.g. retention and creation of dead wood) may be important for promoting the diversity of bryophytes in managed forests.