Surveillance and risk management during the latter stages of eradication: experiences from Australia

The paper reviews the eradication of bovine tuberculosis from Australia with special reference to surveillance and managing the risk of animals exposed to tuberculosis infected animals during the latter stages of eradication. The successful eradication was based on a sound technical program with strong industry and government support. The model of joint industry and government funding and decision-making first used during the brucellosis and tuberculosis eradication campaign (BTEC) has been successfully incorporated within subsequent livestock disease control programs in Australia. An overview of the history of tuberculosis eradication in Australia provides a background to the surveillance approach. Australia was fortunate that there were no wildlife reservoir hosts. Feral animal reservoir hosts were removed during the eradication program. Surveillance to detect rare diseases is recognised to be statistically challenging with high resource requirements. Australian veterinary authorities have a high level of confidence that the combination of increasing sensitivity of abattoir surveillance systems by the submission of all granulomas detected at slaughter with increasing risk management of animals exposed to tuberculosis infected animals during the final stages of eradication provides a high level of assurance that Mycobacterium bovis has been eradicated.     

The Northern Ireland programme for the control and eradication of Mycobacterium bovis

Bovine tuberculosis is endemic in Northern Ireland and a comprehensive eradication scheme has been in operation since 1959. The current programme involves annual testing, extensive computerized tracing, short-interval testing of herds contiguous to outbreaks and compulsory slaughter of positive cattle. Despite initial reductions in disease prevalence, eradication has proved elusive and potential explanatory factors include high cattle density and potential for between-herd contact, the impact of exotic diseases on resource priorities, and significant levels of bovine tuberculosis in a wildlife reservoir, the European badger (Meles meles). Both the role of the infected bovine and that of the badger in spreading disease have to be addressed to ensure progress towards eradication. Current measures are described and future options for enhancing the programme are outlined.     

Towards eradication of bovine tuberculosis in the European Union

This paper reviews the developments and progress towards eradication of bovine tuberculosis in the European Union (EU). A historical view of the EU legislation aimed at mainly approximating provisions on intra-community in cattle trade explains the present EU policies. The variety of cattle breeding systems and environmental conditions in the EU leads to different epidemiological situations. The current situation of bovine tuberculosis in the EU Member States is summarised, and current policy in the EU is outlined.     

Protection of domestic animals from infectious diseases in an economic community without control at the interior borders--an orientation

In relation to the plans for introducing the free inner market in the Member States of the EEC the principles for the future veterinary control of domestic animals and animal products are described. The traditional frontier control will be replaced by official primary control at the place of production (herd of origin, slaughter house, dairy etc.). The technical conditions are described: Effective disease surveillance and notification, eradication and control schemes for contagious diseases, control of animals in relation to trade. Decentralized veterinary control stations have the best possibility to carry out these functions. They should be staffed and equipped with special regard to the structure of the animal population and the production systems in the area concerned. The EEC-Commission has the task to coordinate and standardize this work with the national veterinary services. It is essential that this work functions identically everywhere in the Community. The herd owner should introduce common measures for protecting his animals against infectious diseases. This could be done by veterinary advisers within the frame of voluntary animal health schemes.     

Eradication of targeted species of internal parasites

Eradication can be defined as the permanent reduction to zero of the incidence of infection caused by a specific agent as a result of deliberate efforts. Eradication strategies must be designed to increase access to and utilization of veterinary and animal health support services beyond that normally achieved by routine services. Consequently, before undertaking an eradication program, proponents must be certain that they can be sure of a commitment of resources sufficient to complete the project. A helminth eradication campaign would require the application of anthelmintics to all hosts at a level aimed at killing heterozygote resistant individuals. This strategy runs counter to the prevailing opinion that resistance to chemicals will always occur and control schemes should accept some production loss by letting a proportion of parasites escape selection (in refugia) and thereby increase the useful life of the chemical. Under certain circumstances, environmental constraints may make some species of parasitic nematodes vulnerable to an eradication program. Anthelmintics have been used to exploit these constraints in past control programs and have lead to local eradication of several species of gastro-intestinal parasitic nematodes. Also, there are at present eradication programs for nematode parasites of human that are based on anthelmintic treatment. However, the suppressive pesticide treatment required to bring about the virtual elimination of species is a high-risk strategy and should only be undertaken if eradication is an achievable goal. It is also important to plan an exit strategy if eradication fails.     

Teaching non-technical (professional) competence in a veterinary school curriculum

Data from focused studies and comprehensive surveys suggest that developing or enhancing non-technical (professional) skills will result in a more satisfied and successful veterinary student or veterinary graduate. The College of Veterinary Medicine at Washington State University has devoted considerable time, effort, and resources to augmenting the non-technical aspects of its curriculum while maintaining the traditional strengths of its DVM program. Here we summarize pertinent research and best-practice recommendations from a variety of sources and outline the steps that have been taken, with the underlying rationales, to integrate the teaching and modeling of non-technical (professional) competence throughout a four-year course of veterinary study.     

Measuring and comparing constraints to improved biosecurity amongst GB farmers, veterinarians and the auxiliary industries

Constraints to the introduction of enhanced biosecurity systems are rarely considered in sufficient detail when population medicine specialists initiate new control schemes. The main objective of our research was to investigate and compare the different attitudes constraining improvement in biosecurity for cattle and sheep farmers, practising veterinary surgeons and the auxiliary industries in Great Britain (GB). This study was carried out utilizing farmer focus groups, a questionnaire survey of veterinary practitioners and a telephone survey of auxiliary industry representatives. It appears that farmers and veterinarians have their own relatively clear definitions for biosecurity in relation to some major diseases threatening GB agriculture. Overall, farmers believe that other stakeholders, such as the government, should make a greater contribution towards biosecurity within GB. Conversely, veterinary practitioners saw their clients’ ability or willingness to invest in biosecurity measures as a major constraint. Veterinary practitioners also felt that there was need for additional proof of efficacy and/or the potential economic benefits of proposed farm biosecurity practices better demonstrated. Auxiliary industries, in general, were not certain of their role in biosecurity although study participants highlighted zoonoses as part of the issue and offered that most of the constraints operated at farm level.     

Managing the wildlife reservoir of Mycobacterium bovis: the Michigan, USA, experience

Historical, social and economic factors combined to provide a focus where bovine tuberculosis has become established in free-ranging wildlife in northeastern lower Michigan. White-tailed deer, the primary reservoir and maintenance host of tuberculosis, are highly valued by the public, and particularly hunters, for cultural and economic reasons. Since 1995, significant progress has been made in defining and reducing the reservoir of tuberculosis in deer. As yet, no other wildlife species has been shown to play an epidemiologically important role in the disease cycle. The importance of deer and deer hunting to Michigan has uniquely shaped tuberculosis control policies, and poses ongoing challenges as wildlife managers strive to maintain momentum for broad control strategies, and develop focused strategies that are publicly acceptable. Even if momentum and funding can be maintained, tuberculosis will likely continue to be present for a decade or longer. Thus, cattle producers waiting for tuberculosis to be eradicated from wildlife to eliminate risks to their herds and markets face disappointment for the foreseeable future. Such unrealistic expectations also place Michigan's federal tuberculosis accreditation status at perpetual risk. Accredited free status is unlikely to be regained without accompanying changes in cattle management. In Michigan, management of tuberculosis has clearly demonstrated that social issues and public approval are likely to be the critical limiting factors in control.     

Feedback from the Freezing Works

The almost complete eradication of tuberculosis and brucellosis in cattle is of great credit to both the staff of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) and the veterinary practitioners in this country. As we now move into new fields of disease control, it is vital that our expertise and resources are used for maximum effect in promoting agricultural production.     

Successful and currently ongoing parasite eradication programs

The eradication of parasitic diseases is not a new concept. The most successful programs of parasite eradication have occurred with species of veterinary importance. The first such program, the eradication of Texas Cattle Fever from the United States, is one of the great success stories of disease eradication. The American screwworm eradication program is ongoing and is serving as a guiding impetus for many of the ongoing or proposed vector eradication schemes around the world. The success of these programs prompted similar successful operations in human health. Although they once led the way, veterinary parasitologists have taken second place in eradication planning. The only three parasitic diseases of veterinary importance that have been targets of recent eradication programs are Hypoderma species in Great Britain and Europe, Cochliomyia hominivorax after its introduction into Libya from the Americas, and Echinococcus granulosus in Tasmania, Australia. There is also work on the eradication of the tick, Amblyomma variegatum, from the Caribbean Islands. Some animal diseases are targeted under the auspices of the human eradication programs, most notably the eradication of the tsetse fly from parts or all of Africa. This paper reviews some of the past or ongoing successful eradication programs and presents a brief summary of the history of the programs, the methods used or planned, and potential controversies surrounding their success and implementation.     

天津市奶牛结核病净化工程

为完成奶牛结核病净化工程,天津市引进了γ-干扰素检测新技术,结合传统的检测、扑杀、消毒、检疫、流调、监管等技术措施,制定了奶牛结核病净化技术规范。根据本市奶牛结核病防治实际情况,制定了全市奶牛结核病净化项目实施方案,确定了科学的可行的以区县为单位分区实施的净化技术路线。通过4年的努力,全市共完成奶牛结核病检测71.3万头次,检出阳性牛170头,且阳性牛呈逐年下降趋势,2013年无阳性牛检出。至2013年底,全市所有农业区县均达到农业部颁布的奶牛结核病净化标准,并通过市畜牧兽医局组织的考核验收。本文对项目实施过程及成功经验进行了分析和探讨,以期为其它地区开展奶牛结核病净化工作提供参考。     

Regionalization: a strategy that will assist with bovine tuberculosis control and facilitate trade

It is expected that the revised chapter on bovine tuberculosis in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code of the Office Internationale des Epizooties (OIE) will embrace regionalization as a functional means of assisting countries, states or regions to meet the requirements for freedom from tuberculosis and to facilitate trade. The benefits and applications of regionalization, which comprises zoning and compartmentalisation, are discussed. Regionalization requires that a country's veterinary administration is able to implement transparent and auditable biosecurity measures that will ensure that the tuberculosis-free status of a subpopulation of cattle is maintained despite the presence of infection in another cattle subpopulation, or in other domestic or wild animal species. Zoning, which requires cattle subpopulations to be separated by geographic boundaries, provides a practical basis whereby countries, states or regions, can progress towards freedom from tuberculosis, regardless of the source of infection for defined cattle subpopulations. Compartmentalisation however, requires that husbandry or management practices will be used to prevent a tuberculosis-free cattle subpopulation from contacting interspecific and intraspecific sources of infection. This will be difficult to achieve except for specialised cases such as artificial breeding centers.     

Food animal veterinary medicine: leading a changing profession

The veterinary profession has gone through periods of profound change in response to economic and social changes. We are currently in another such period: profound change is required in order for the profession to remain relevant in a marketplace where a rapidly expanding knowledge base and new technologies demand an ever-increasing level of expertise in a greater variety of areas. However, the veterinary profession is perceived both internally and by the public as possessing a narrow set of skills that supports a narrow group of careers focused on salvaging ill or injured companion animals. It will be necessary to dramatically change the way veterinary students are recruited and trained, as well as how graduate veterinarians are licensed and provided continuing education, in order for the veterinary profession to capitalize on our historical strengths and provide service and leadership in a greater diversity of career paths. Even though the number of veterinarians needed to provide primary care for livestock is decreasing, both the level of expertise demanded by livestock owners and the value of veterinary involvement on livestock farms are increasing. Colleges of veterinary medicine appear challenged to meet the changing needs for veterinary services in animal agriculture because of the declining percentage of veterinary students interested in food animal careers. Fortunately for animal agriculture, the skill set needed by food animal veterinarians is also needed by several emerging segments of the veterinary profession that have tremendous potential for rapid growth, including employment in all segments of food production systems, environmental monitoring and management, bio-security and disease eradication, laboratory diagnostics, and federal regulatory and bio-defense roles. Like previous periods of profound change, this moment in history will require creative thought, open discussion, and a willingness to step into the unknown.     

Advanced imaging for veterinary cancer patients.

This article presents an update on the recent advances made in veterinary advanced imaging specifically with regard to cross-sectional modalities (CT and MRI) and nuclear medicine (positron emission tomography [PET] and PET/CT). A brief summary of technical improvements and a review of recent literature are included to provide an overview of the progress made in this important element of the practicing veterinary oncologist's repertoire. An in-depth summary of PET is also included to introduce the technical aspects and potential clinical and research applications of this novel imaging modality in veterinary medicine.     

Pharmaco-epidemiology and -economics should be developed more extensively in veterinary medicine

Pharmaco-epidemiology, which has emerged within the last 20 years as a new discipline in human medicine, deals with the quantities of drugs consumed and their effects on populations in terms of epidemiological concepts and tools. To a lesser extent, it is also practised in veterinary medicine. The applications presented in this review are illustrative of pharmaco-epidemiological and -economical concepts. Assessment of drug consumption, the study of adverse drug effects, and the economic implications of drug use are the three main fields considered. Developments can be expected in veterinary medicine within the next few years relative to novel areas of interest such as antimicrobial resistance and new therapeutic class uses. These applications will require methodological progress and the elimination of current gaps. Pharmaco-epidemiological methods need to be developed, which implies close co-operation between statisticians, pharmacologists, veterinary practitioners and epidemiologists. A greater use of the term 'pharmaco-epidemiology' as a keyword in literature would facilitate recognition of this domain which associates closely epidemiology and pharmacology.     

Epidemiological situation of transboundary animal diseases in North African countries—proposition of a regional control strategy

The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) defined transboundary animal diseases (TADs) as those that are of significant economic, trade, and food security importance for a considerable number of countries. TADs can easily spread to other countries, reach epidemic proportions, and where control, management, or exclusion is required cooperation between several countries. The North African countries are vulnerable to several TADs by virtue of its geographical location, its borders with the Sahel region, and peculiar control constraints on the budgets of the national veterinary services of each country and on the livelihoods of livestock owners across the region. In a narrative approach, we comprehensively described the epidemiology of TADs in North African countries, eradication constraints and control measures adopted to conclude with a proposition of a regional control strategy. Our review uncovered foot-and-mouth disease, peste des petites ruminants, bluetongue, sheep/goats pox, brucellosis, West Nile and Rift Valley fever, as the major TADs in this region, while the major constraints identified were illegal animal movement, communal clashes, unreported outbreaks, poor vaccination coverage, and other factors peculiar to each etiology. Therefore, the establishment of early warning systems and proper implementation of control measures at regional level are highly recommended to the relevant stakeholders involved in TADs control in the region.     

Enhanced communication by developing a non-anxious presence: a key attribute for the successful veterinarian

In the recent past much has been written about non-technical skills in veterinary medical education. This dialogue has focused extensively on competence in behaviorally based communication skills for successful veterinary practice. Other relationship-based communication skills are also useful in communication, such as self-awareness, flexibility, non-judgment (compassion), and being present. All of these relationally based skills are present in the concept of non-anxious presence. This article will review the history of the term 'non-anxious presence' (NAP), discuss a proposed model of NAP for the veterinary medical environment, and review some methods useful in teaching NAP in veterinary medical education.     

Perceived constraints to private veterinary practice in India

We used an exploratory study in two districts of West Bengal State, India to find out the constraints of private veterinary practice. Privatization of veterinary services is being seen as an alternative to government-sponsored veterinary services to livestock. In December 2000 to February 2001, 50 private veterinary practitioners were interviewed from the districts. Their opinion was that weak regulations about competition from illegal practitioners and the use of veterinary drugs, competition by animal-health technicians (who are likely to charge less than veterinarians), absence of efficient diagnostic-laboratory support, and lack of commercial livestock farming were the main constraints faced.     

Eradication programme for bovine viral diarrhoea virus in Orkney 2001 to 2008

The strategies used and the results obtained in Orkney's bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) eradication programme over eight years (2001 to 2008) are presented and discussed. The venture was undertaken by local veterinary practices and the Orkney Livestock Association (OLA) with the financial support of the Orkney Islands Council. Participation is voluntary; the programme comprises screening of youngstock, a whole-herd test if required, elimination of persistently infected animals and strict biosecurity measures and/or vaccination. BVDV-free herds are certified, and certification is updated annually by retesting the youngstock. The programme aims to minimise economic losses, thereby increasing the competitiveness of the Orcadian cattle industry and to improve animal health and welfare by eliminating virus circulation. Information from databases of the Scottish Agricultural College, Biobest Laboratories and OLA show that despite a significant reduction in the overall prevalence of BVDV on Orkney during the initial stages of the eradication programme, there has been little progress made since 2006 and that some difficulties have been encountered, with herd BVDV breakdowns following initial eradication. These results highlight the need for continued motivation of farmers, strict application of biosecurity measures and/or systematic vaccination of all seronegative breeding animals.     

Modelling the spread of foot-and-mouth disease in Australia

Preparedness for an incursion of an exotic animal disease is of key importance to government, industry, producers and the Australian community. An important aspect of Australia's preparedness for a possible incursion of foot-and-mouth disease is investigation into the likely effectiveness and cost-efficiency of eradication strategies when applied to different regional outbreak scenarios. Disease modelling is a tool that can be used to study diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease to better understand potential disease spread and control under different conditions. The Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry has been involved with epidemiologic simulation modelling for more than 10 years, and has developed a sophisticated spatial model for foot-and-mouth disease (AusSpread) that operates within a geographic information system framework. The model accommodates real farm boundary or point-location data, as well as synthesised data based on agricultural census and land use information. The model also allows for interactions between herds or flocks of different animal species and production type, and considers the role that such interactions are likely to play in the epidemiology of a regional outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. The user can choose mitigations and eradication strategies from those that are currently described in Australia's veterinary emergency plan. The model also allows the user to evaluate the impact of constraints on the availability of resources for mitigations or eradication measures. Outputs include a range of maps and tabulated outbreak statistics describing the geographic extent of the outbreak and its duration, the numbers of affected, slaughtered, and, as relevant, vaccinated herds or flocks, and the cost of control and eradication. Cost-related outputs are based on budgets of the value of stock and the cost of mitigations, each of which can be varied by the user. These outputs are a valuable resource to assist with policy development and disease management.