生物结皮坡面不同降雨历时的产流特征

黄土高原退耕还林(草)工程实施后,生物结皮广泛发育,显著影响坡面产流。已有大量研究探索了生物结皮对径流的影响,但相关结论存在较大分歧。该研究以黄土高原典型生物结皮坡面为研究对象,通过人工模拟降雨试验,研究了生物结皮坡面产流过程。结果表明:生物结皮坡面较翻耕后的裸土坡面显著降低了初始产流时间,裸土坡面初始产流时间是生物结皮坡面的1.59～3.04倍。生物结皮盖度与初始产流时间之间呈显著的负相关关系;降雨15min时与60 min时生物结皮对坡面径流的影响发生逆转,90 mm/h的雨强下,当降雨历时为15 min时,生物结皮坡面较裸土坡面增加75.42%的径流;当降雨历时为60min时,生物结皮坡面径流量较裸土坡面降低52.42%;生物结皮影响了土壤水分入渗速率,导致生物结皮坡面与裸土坡面随降雨历时变化的产流特征出现差异,裸土坡面降雨60 min时的入渗率较15 min时降低了34.30%,高盖度生物结皮坡面降低了6.38%;生物结皮对坡面入渗产流的影响与降雨历时有极大的关系,降雨历时不同,很可能得到截然相反的结论,考虑生物结皮因素的野外降雨试验,降雨历时应不少于45min。研究结果为解释生物结皮影响坡面入渗产流方面存在的分歧提供了科学依据,进一步明确了干旱半干旱地区生物结皮的水文效应。     

Biocrusts modulate warming and rainfall exclusion effects on soil respiration in a semi-arid grassland

Soil surface communities composed of cyanobacteria, algae, mosses, liverworts, fungi, bacteria and lichens (biocrusts) largely affect soil respiration in dryland ecosystems. Climate change is expected to have large effects on biocrusts and associated ecosystem processes. However, few studies so far have experimentally assessed how expected changes in temperature and rainfall will affect soil respiration in biocrust-dominated ecosystems. We evaluated the impacts of biocrust development, increased air temperature and decreased precipitation on soil respiration dynamics during dry (2009) and wet (2010) years, and investigated the relative importance of soil temperature and moisture as environmental drivers of soil respiration, in a semiarid grassland from central Spain. Soil respiration rates were significantly lower in the dry than in the wet year, regardless of biocrust cover. Warming increased soil respiration rates, but this response was only significant in biocrust-dominated areas (>50% biocrust cover). Warming also increased the temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀ values) of soil respiration in biocrust-dominated areas, particularly during the wet year. The combination of warming and rainfall exclusion had similar effects in low biocrust cover areas. Our results highlight the importance of biocrusts as a modulator of soil respiration responses to both warming and rainfall exclusion, and indicate that they must be explicitly considered when evaluating soil respiration responses to climate change in drylands.     

Biocrusts resist runoff erosion through direct physical protection and indirect modification of soil properties

Purpose

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are ubiquitous in arid and semi-arid regions and play many critical roles in soil stabilization and erosion prevention, greatly decreasing soil loss. Although sediments may be completely controlled by well-developed biocrusts, runoff loss is observed. Consequently, it is important to study how biocrusts resist runoff erosion in different developmental stages to evaluate and manage water erosion.

Materials and methods

In the Loess Plateau Region, we sampled 32 biocrust plots representing eight stages of biocrust development and 5 slope cropland soil plots as bare soil control plots. We then used a rectangular open channel hydraulic flume to test the effects of biocrust development on runoff erosion.

Results and discussion

As expected, the establishment of biocrusts enhanced soil stability, and accordingly, soil anti-scourability significantly increased with biocrust development. Biocrusts exhibiting more than 36% or 1.22 g dm^?2 of moss coverage or biomass fully protected the soil from runoff erosion. Moreover, soil properties, such as soil organic matter, soil cohesion and soil bulk density, were also important in reducing erosion. The findings indicated that biocrusts inhibited runoff erosion through direct physical protection related to biocrust cover and biomass and through the indirect modification of soil properties. In the early biocrust development stage (when moss cover was less than 36%), cyanobacterial biocrust played a primary role in providing resistance to runoff erosion, with resistance being positively related to cyanobacterial biomass (chlorophyll a) and influenced by soil properties.

Conclusions

The relationship between soil anti-scourability and moss coverage or biomass can be divided into two stages based on a moss cover or biomass threshold. The capacity of biocrusts to resist runoff erosion was limited when moss cover was below the threshold value. Therefore, the stage corresponding to this level of moss cover should be of concern when estimating, predicting and managing water erosion.

     

Foraging pits of the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) as small-scale patches in a semi-arid Australian box woodland

Many animals create disturbances on the soil surface while constructing habitat and resting sites, or foraging for food. This soil disturbance, which is sometimes known as biopedturbation, is a major contributor to landscape patchiness in arid and semi-arid environments. In the semi-arid woodlands of eastern Australia, the Short-Beaked Echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) creates a mosaic of foraging pits close to the canopies of large trees. The effects of pits on physical, chemical and biological properties of soils were compared at seven sites, each with two levels of disturbance (foraging pit vs. surface) and two canopy locations (under the canopy, in the open) associated with two tree species (Eucalyptus intertexta, Alectryon oleifolius). Foraging pits trapped twice the mass of litter compared with adjacent non-pit surfaces, and there was more litter under the tree canopies than in the open. Pits contained more bark and leaf material, and larger pits tended to trap more litter. Soil electrical conductivity levels were lower in the pits, and although there were greater concentrations of soil nutrients under the canopy, the concentrations of total carbon, nitrogen and sulphur were lower in the pits compared with the surface. Changes in litter mass did not explain differences in soil carbon, nitrogen or phosphorus. Soil in the pit was moister and more porous, and surface temperatures below the litter in the pits about 2 °C lower than at the surface. Respiration was about 30% greater in the pits, and both the early (sorptivity) and late (steady-state infiltration) stages of infiltration were significantly greater in the pits. Soil micro-arthropods were more abundant in the pits, which supported a different complement of taxa, but a similar diversity, to non-pit surfaces. Our results indicate that echidna foraging pits act as substantial resource traps. Given their extensive distribution in semi-arid woodlands, and their marked influence on soil biogeochemistry, echidnas should be seen as important ecosystem engineers in woodland critical for the maintenance of small-scale patchiness and, therefore, the efficient functioning of arid and semi-arid ecosystems.     

线源入流入渗法在生物结皮渗透性研究中的应用

土壤水分入渗的观测方法很多,但在测定坡地生物结皮土壤水分入渗时均存在一定的缺陷。线源入流入渗法是可用于无结皮的坡地土壤水分入渗较为简便快捷的观测方法。以裸土为对照,采用线源入流入渗法和模拟降雨法测定了黄土丘陵区多藻少藓、半藻半藓、多藓少藻等不同类型生物结皮土壤水分入渗过程。结果表明:(1)线源入流入渗法可在不干扰生物结皮的情况下,快速、完整地反映土壤水分入渗过程,获取初始入渗速率、平均入渗速率及稳定入渗速率等重要参数;(2)线源入流入渗法所得研究区不同类型生物结皮的初始入渗速率范围为3~12 mm/min,平均入渗速率范围为0.5~4.5 mm/min,稳定入渗速率范围为0.3~1.8 mm/min,随着藓盖度的增加,其初始、平均、稳定入渗速率均呈现出显著差异;(3)线源入流入渗法测定的生物结皮土壤稳定入渗速率(y,mm/min)与人工模拟降雨试验所得入渗速率(x,mm/min)呈显著的线性相关关系(y=1.73x-1.24,R^2=0.376 8,ρ=0.539~*)。研究结果为坡地生物结皮土壤水分入渗速率的测定提供一种简单易操作的测定方法。     

黄土高原藓类生物结皮对表层土壤水分运动参数的影响

生物结皮普遍存在于干旱和半干旱地区土壤表层,对土壤水分有重要影响。为了进一步探究生物结皮对表层土壤水力学特性和水分运动过程的影响,该研究以黄土高原风沙土和黄绵土上发育的藓结皮为研究对象,通过野外采样与室内试验相结合,测定了藓结皮覆盖土壤和无结皮土壤的Boltzmann变换参数、土壤水分扩散率、入渗过程、比水容量和非饱和导水率,对比分析了有无藓结皮覆盖对表层土壤水分运动参数的影响。结果表明:藓结皮覆盖抑制了表层土壤水分的扩散,藓结皮覆盖土壤的Boltzmann变换参数和水分扩散率分别比无结皮土壤降低7.9%～27.3%和99.2%～99.6%;藓结皮覆盖后表层土壤渗透性显著降低,其水分入渗参数(初始入渗率、稳定入渗率、平均入渗率、累积入渗量)和非饱和导水率分别降低了17.1%～55.4%和84.8%～92.3%;藓结皮显著提升了表层土壤的持水和供水能力,藓结皮层的水分常数(田间持水量、萎蔫系数、重力水含量、有效水含量和易利用水含量)比无结皮土壤高40.9%～1 233.3%,土壤水吸力在100k Pa时的比水容量比无结皮土壤高7.4%～1 540.5%;相比黄绵土,藓结皮覆盖对风沙土的渗透性影响较小,而对土壤持水和供水性的影响较大。综上,黄土高原藓结皮覆盖降低了土壤渗透性,同时显著提高了表层土壤的水分有效性,这可能导致土壤表层在雨后截留较多水分,进而使土壤水分分布趋于浅层化,并改变该地区的土壤水分有效性和植物水分利用策略。     

Swelling of biocrusts upon wetting induces changes in surface micro-topography

In most of non-vegetated areas from drylands, soils are colonized by biocrusts, and although they represent a small fraction of the soil profile, they strongly affect several soil surface properties, such as porosity, available nitrogen and carbon content, hydrophobicity or micro-topography. The influence of BSCs on these soil properties has effects on numerous ecosystem processes, including water retention and runoff generation. Previous studies on the hydrological and erosive response of soils covered by biocrusts have highlighted the role of soil surface roughness as a key variable for understanding the influence of biocrusts on runoff and erosion, but biocrusts' effects on surface micro-topography varies depending on crust water content. Biocrusts can absorb large amounts of water in a short period of time, increasing their volume and modifying surface micro-topography, this change depending on biocruts type and development. A correct characterization of these surface variations may increase the knowledge about hydrological response of biocrusts, and for this reason, accurate ground level measurements of biologically crusted surfaces are essential. The objective of this study is to analyze the effect of wetting on surface micro-topography of biologically crusted soils. To achieve this objective, different crust types were scanned in the laboratory with high resolution laser scanner. Five samples were collected for each of the 4 different crust types (bare soil, cyanobacteria biocrust, and two different lichen biocruts). Two different scans were made in each sample, in dry and wet conditions. Random roughness (RR) was calculated for data from every scan, and the RR indexes obtained before and after wetting were compared. According with our initial hypothesis, an increase in surface height and surface roughness up to 0.24 and 0.20 mm respectively was observed in more developed lichen biocruts, under wet conditions respect to dry ones. These differences, despite being very subtle, could exert strong implications on runoff generation, and water evaporation, and show the complex interactions between biocruts, surface micro-topography and water fluxes.     

黄土高原藓结皮覆盖土壤的穿透阻力特征及其影响因素

生物结皮的发育显著地影响并改变了表层土壤的理化性状,从而影响土壤穿透阻力.为探明生物结皮层对土壤穿透阻力的影响,针对黄土高原风沙土和黄绵土两种典型土壤,利用高精度土壤贯入仪测定并比较了不同含水量下藓结皮土壤和无结皮土壤的穿透阻力差异,定量分析了藓结皮层对土壤穿透阻力的影响及其与土壤性质(含水量、容重和有机质含量以及颗粒...     

黄土丘陵区不同盖度生物结皮对坡面产流及SCS-CN模型CN值的影响

以黄土丘陵区典型退耕地不同盖度的生物结皮坡面为研究对象,通过野外人工模拟降雨试验,研究不同盖度生物结皮对坡面产流的影响,解析了生物结皮盖度与SCS-CN径流模型参数CN值的关系。结果表明:(1)在90 mm/h雨强条件下,初始产流时间随生物结皮盖度增加而降低,低盖度(0~20%)生物结皮坡面初始产流时间分别为中盖度(40%~60%)和高盖度(80%~100%)的1.64,2.46倍;(2)降雨前15 min,高盖度生物结皮较中、低盖度生物结皮促进产流,15 min后,高盖度生物结皮较中、低盖度生物结皮抑制产流,降雨45 min后各处理小区径流系数趋于稳定;(3)径流深随生物结皮盖度增加呈对数函数降低(y=-13.87ln x+73.515,R^2=0.7614);(4)生物结皮盖度(CBSC,%)与CN值呈极显著负相关关系,CN=-0.2672×CBSC+79.0166,R^2=0.6800,通过调整CN值可使SCS-CN模型适于生物结皮坡面的径流估算。研究结果揭示了生物结皮对SCS-CN径流模型参数CN值的影响,对建立考虑生物结皮的水文模型奠定了基础。     

喀斯特坡面生物结皮发育对土壤抗蚀性能的影响

西南喀斯特地区普遍发育的生物结皮，对土壤侵蚀有显著的抑制作用。以贵州喀斯特坡面不同退耕年限地块(0,3,5,8,11年)生物结皮为研究对象，对不同流量水平(0.2,0.3,0.4,0.5 L/s)和坡度(5°,12°,17°,23°)条件下生物结皮对土壤抗蚀性能的影响机制进行研究。结果表明：(1)生物结皮发育能够促进土壤颗粒胶结，增强土壤团聚体稳定性，改善土壤结构，提高土壤持水和透水能力。(2)生物结皮发育可增强土壤抗崩解和抗剪切能力，与去除结皮处理相比，结皮存在时的土壤抗崩解和抗剪切能力分别提高24.83%～46.62%和25.77%～37.73%。(3)发育年限内(3～11年)结皮层抗拉力变化范围为1.95～5.76 N,随着生物结皮发育年限增加，结皮层结构越趋稳定，其抵抗破坏的能力也越强。(4)生物结皮可明显提高土壤抗冲性能，且受流量和坡度的双重制约，流量和坡度都存在临界值，分别为0.4 L/s和17°,超过临界值后，其保护作用显著减弱。研究结果对于喀斯特地区准确估算土壤流失和生态恢复建设正确评价具有重要意义。     

Potential mechanisms of soil nitrogen content heterogeneity associated with biocrust development in drylands

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are complex communities of micro- and macro-organisms dwelling at the soil surface in dryland regions worldwide, which contribute to important ecological functions in these areas. Biocrusts may reach different developmental stages, associated to autogenic succession of specific phototrophic organisms. However, notwithstanding the large amount of existing literature, little is known regarding the relationship between biocrust stages of development and soil nutrient dynamics. In this opinion paper, we specifically focused on soil nitrogen, and compared the total nitrogen content and potential nitrogenase activity of different developmental types of biocrust (-covered) soils. Based on published reports, we looked at a possible relationship between nitrogen content at the soil surface and biocrust development, discussing the potential mechanisms leading to the observed soil nitrogen content heterogeneity. The results showed that a higher nitrogen content remained associated to the presence of moss-dominated biocrusts, and this biocrust morphotype was characterized by a lower potential nitrogenase activity compared to the cyanobacteria- and/or lichen-dominated biocrusts. We hypothesized that these seemingly contradictory findings might be attributed to three potential mechanisms: nitrogen inheritance, nutrient retention and nutrient transfer, which we hereby examined one by one. Altogether, our opinion supports the theory of biocrust succession from incipient cyanobacteria-dominated stages to more ‘mature’ stages dominated by mosses. We stress how the heterogeneous distribution of soil nitrogen, which is closely related with biocrust development and community types, eventually affects regional and even global nitrogen dynamic and storage.     

Predation determines the outcome of 10 reintroduction attempts in arid South Australia

Ten reintroduction attempts were conducted in and around the Arid Recovery Reserve in northern South Australia between 1998 and 2008. Five locally-extinct mammal species and one reptile species were reintroduced into a fenced Reserve where cats, foxes and rabbits were excluded. Reintroductions of the nationally threatened greater stick-nest rat, burrowing bettong, greater bilby and western barred bandicoot were all considered successful based on short and medium-term success criteria. These criteria included continued survival after 8 years, increased distribution across the large Reserve and, most importantly, recovery after a drought event. The trial reintroductions of the numbat and woma python into the Reserve were unsuccessful due to predation by native avian and reptilian predators respectively. Outside the Reserve, where cats and foxes were present but controlled through poison baiting, reintroduction attempts of the greater bilby and burrowing bettong were unsuccessful. High mortality was attributed to cat and fox predation with dingoes also contributing to post-release mortality in bettongs. However, a reintroduction of burrowing bettongs into a fenced area with low rabbit and cat abundance has, to-date, met short-term and medium-term success criteria. Results suggest that the absence or severe restriction of exotic mammalian predators was the critical factor responsible for the success of the mammal reintroductions. Determining thresholds of predator activity below which successful reintroduction of threatened species can occur, are needed to improve the science of reintroduction biology in Australia.     

黄土丘陵区不同降水量带生物结皮对土壤氮素的影响

黄土丘陵区生物结皮广泛发育,可通过固氮作用影响土壤氮素水平,但该区生物结皮对土壤氮素水平的影响鲜见报道.本文通过野外调查结合采样分析,研究了黄土丘陵区不同降水量带生物结皮组成、覆盖度差异及其对土壤氮素水平的影响.结果表明,1)黄土丘陵区不同降水量带生物结皮覆盖度无显著差异,但组成有差别;2)不同降水量带土壤氮素含量剖面分布具有明显的分层特征,生物结皮显著增加了结皮层土壤氮素含量,对下层土壤影响较小,结皮层下0-2 cm、2-5 cm、5-10 cm土层中氮素含量差异不显著;3)生物结皮层土壤全氮、碱解氮及微生物氮在不同降水量带差异不显著,而0-2 cm、2-5 cm、5-10 cm土壤全氮、碱解氮及土壤微生物氮含量在200～300 mm降水量带小于300～600 mm降水量带.研究结果揭示了黄土丘陵区生物结皮对土壤氮素的贡献,而不同降水量带生物结皮对土壤氮素的贡献差异不显著的原因有待于进一步研究.     

黄土高原生物结皮对土壤养分的表层聚集与吸附固持效应

  【目的】  生物结皮的广泛发育可显著影响表层土壤养分状况,在土壤养分积累和循环中发挥重要作用。通过淋溶实验和吸附试验研究其作用效果和机制。  【方法】  以黄土高原质地不同的风沙土和黄绵土为对象,分别选取有生物结皮覆盖和无结皮覆盖的地块,分析生物结皮层、结皮层下0—2、2—5和5—10 cm土层土壤的有机质、全碳、全氮、全磷含量,研究生物结皮对土壤养分含量的影响及其随土壤深度的变化规律。以Cl?、K+、Ca2+为示踪离子开展土壤淋溶实验,分析其淋出土壤的特征;淋溶实验结束后,测定包括结皮层在内的各土层离子吸附解析量。  【结果】  1) 生物结皮层 (约2 cm厚) 养分含量是无结皮土壤的0.43～10.51倍。生物结皮覆盖下0—10 cm土壤的养分含量均高于对应深度的无结皮土壤,有机质、全碳、全氮、全磷含量比无结皮土壤增加了1.4%～184.9%。2) 生物结皮层的养分含量比其下层土壤提高了38.2%～557.1%,而无结皮的表层 (0—2 cm) 土壤养分含量仅比其下层土壤提高了13.4%～213.9%,这表明生物结皮增强了土壤养分的表层聚集。3) 生物结皮覆盖土壤中添加的养分在相同条件下相较于无结皮土壤更难以淋出;除易淋溶的Cl?全部淋出外,K+和Ca2+未被全部淋出,且在生物结皮覆盖土壤中的累积淋出量比无结皮土壤低21.9%～47.4%。淋溶实验结束后结皮层的Cl?、K+、Ca2+含量均显著高于无结皮 (8.8%～340.4%) 和结皮下层土壤 (14.5%～62.7%)。4) 生物结皮显著增加了土壤对Cl?、K+、Ca2+的吸附量,其增加幅度为27.8%～118.1%,且生物结皮层对不同离子吸附能力的强弱依次为Ca2+>K+>Cl?。  【结论】  与无结皮土壤相比,生物结皮能够增加土壤养分含量并促进土壤养分的表层聚集,同时提升土壤对养分的吸附与固持能力,因而有利于退化贫瘠土壤的养分积累,在干旱和半干旱地区土壤肥力提升与生态环境改善方面发挥着至关重要的作用。     

黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区藓结皮覆盖土壤的蒸发特征

土壤蒸发是地表水分平衡及能量交换的组成部分,是干旱和半干旱区水文循环的关键环节。为探究黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区生物结皮对土壤蒸发的影响,以风沙土和黄绵土上发育的藓结皮为研究对象,通过模拟蒸发试验和自然蒸发试验,测定了不同蒸发条件下藓结皮覆盖土壤和无结皮土壤的蒸发强度,分析了藓结皮覆盖土壤的蒸发特征及其与无结皮土壤的差异。结果表明:(1)模拟蒸发试验中,藓结皮对土壤蒸发过程的影响表现出明显的阶段性,与无结皮土壤相比,藓结皮使土壤蒸发强度在大气蒸发力控制阶段降低了3.04%～15.46%(0.21～1.05 mm/d),在土壤导水率控制阶段增加了32.26%～187.07%(0.58～2.54 mm/d),在水汽扩散控制阶段增加了12.91%～87.73%(0.05～0.34 mm/d);土壤累积蒸发量大小表现为藓结皮覆盖土壤无结皮土壤。(2)自然蒸发试验中,6月16日至9月3日,无降雨时藓结皮覆盖土壤和无结皮土壤的蒸发速率均较低,藓结皮覆盖土壤的日平均蒸发量是无结皮土壤的1.12～1.42倍,自然降雨后二者的蒸发速率快速增加,降雨后土壤蒸发量是降雨前的2.20～8.55倍;在8月10—22日观测期内,藓结皮在雨后增加了土壤含水量,并对土壤蒸发起到促进作用,藓结皮覆盖土壤的累积蒸发量显著提高了19.22%～64.09%(F=21.85,P0.01)。研究表明,藓结皮覆盖增加了风沙土和黄绵土的水分蒸发强度,可能会对黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区土壤水分保持产生不利影响。     

Grazing or Not Grazing: Implications for Ecosystem Services Provided by Biocrusts in Mediterranean Cork Oak Woodlands

Livestock grazing is one of the most common practices in managed woodlands affecting the abundance and diversity of plant and soil communities. While grazing effects have been studied thoroughly in vascular plants, little is known about grazing consequences for soil lichens and mosses (“biocrusts”) in managed woodlands. However, these complex communities have critical contributions to soil functioning in drylands. We evaluated grazing effects on biocrust abundance and functional composition in Mediterranean cork‐oak woodlands under long‐term grazing and after 7 and 17 years of grazing exclusion. We found four main groups in the region regarding the functional trait ‘growth form’: fruticose and foliose lichens, and short and tall mosses. Each group presented different water absorption and retention capacity, and showed group‐specific effects on soil water and temperature. Fruticose lichens were the most sensitive group to grazing, decreasing dramatically in cover with grazing (~7 times). Also, this group presented higher water retention capacity (~19 h), together with a consistent reducing effect on soil temperature along the grazing gradient (up to 0·9 °C). The shift in biocrust abundance and functional composition under grazing pressure has direct consequences in microclimate regulation, and is likely to influence other ecosystem processes such as CO₂ fixation, soil surface protection and habitat provision. In particular, microclimate regulation may affect cork‐oak regeneration processes, which is one of the main concerns in managed woodlands. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships between rock fragment cover and soil hydrological response in a Mediterranean environment

Rock fragments are a key factor for determining erosion rates, particularly in arid and semiarid environments where vegetation cover is very low. However, the effect of rock fragments in non-cultivated bare soils is still not well understood. Currently, there is a need for quantitative information on the effects of rock fragments on hydrological soil processes, in order to improve soil erosion models. The main objective of the present research was to study the influence of rock fragment cover on run-off and interrill soil erosion under simulated rainfall in Mediterranean bare soils in south-western Spain. Thirty-six rainfall simulation experiments were carried out at an intensity of 26.8 mm h⁻¹ over 60 min under three different classes of rock fragment cover (<50%, 50–60% and >60%). Ponding and run-off flow were delayed in soils with high rock fragment cover. In addition, sediment yield and soil erosion rates were higher in soils with a low rock fragment cover. The relationship between soil loss rate and rock fragment cover was described by an exponential function. After this first set of experiments, rock fragments were removed from sites with the highest cover (>60%) and the rainfall simulation experiments were repeated. The steady-state run-off rate and soil loss increased significantly, showing that run-off and soil erosion were partly conditioned by rock fragment cover. These results have significant implications for erosion modelling and soil conservation practices in areas with the same climate and soil characteristics.     

Effects of rock fragment cover on soil infiltration, interrill runoff and erosion

Considerable attention has been paid recently to the influence of surface rock fragments on hydrological and erosional processes, although much of this research has been done on disturbed soils under laboratory conditions. I have studied the effects of rock fragments on soil infiltration, runoff and erosion under field conditions using simulated rainfall on bare areas of natural soils within typical Mediterranean scrubland characterized by patchily distributed vegetation. Sample areas were chosen where rock fragments cover more than half the surface within unvegetated patches. Twenty experiments were carried out by applying rain at an intensity of 55 mm h^?1 for 60 minutes. This approach shows that rock fragments (i) retard ponding and surface runoff, and (ii) give greater steady‐state infiltration rates and smaller interrill runoff discharges, sediment concentrations and interrill erosion rates. A second set of six experiments was carried out by applying rainfall at an intensity of 55 mm h^?1 for two runs of 60 minutes. The second run was initiated 10 minutes after the first. During this interval, surface rock fragments were removed in order to measure their effects on infiltration, interrill runoff and erosion rates. In this way, I showed that water and soil losses are reduced by the rock fragments. After the removal of rock fragments the steady‐state infiltration rate diminished from 44.5 to 27.5 mm h^?1 and the runoff coefficient, sediment concentration and erosion rates were, respectively, 3, 33 and 39 times greater than they were before the rock fragments were removed.     

Continental‐scale Impacts of Livestock Grazing on Ecosystem Supporting and Regulating Services

Grazing by livestock supports millions of people worldwide, particularly in drylands, but has marked negative effects on ecosystem services and functions. In Australia, its effects on ecosystem services have not been fully quantified. We examined the extent to which grazing by livestock influenced supporting (productivity, habitat for organisms and biodiversity) and regulating (carbon cycling and hydrological function) services, using data from published and unpublished studies on livestock grazing from a large number of sites across Australia. Grazing reduced our measure of supporting services by about 20% and regulatory services by 8%. On average, grazing reduced plant productivity by 40%, habitat value by 20%, and biodiversity, hydrological function and carbon sequestration by about 10%. Habitat and productivity showed strong declines with increasing grazing intensity, and carbon showed strong declines at the lowest and highest contrasts. Hydrological function and biodiversity did not decline with increasing grazing intensity. Overall, the results indicate that livestock grazing leads to substantial degradation at a continental scale by reducing ecosystem services associated with habitat provision, biodiversity, and soil and water functions. Management of livestock grazing will be critical if we are to retain functional levels of ecosystem services into the next century. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

黄土高原干旱半干旱区生物结皮覆盖土壤水汽吸附与凝结特征

生物结皮是一种广泛分布于干旱半干旱地区土壤表层的特殊复合体,为揭示其对土壤水汽吸附与凝结过程的影响,该研究通过室内定量水汽吸附试验和野外对水汽凝结的连续观测,对黄土高原典型生物结皮(藻结皮、藻藓混生结皮、藓结皮)与裸沙的水汽吸附和凝结特征进行对比研究。结果表明:生物结皮的覆盖显著提升了表层土壤的水汽吸附能力,其平均水汽吸附量比裸沙高66.7%。不同类型生物结皮水汽吸附能力差异显著,表现为藓结皮最高,混生结皮次之,而藻结皮最低。GAB(Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer)吸附模型能较好的描述生物结皮土壤水汽吸附与解吸附过程,模拟结果决定系数R20.99、均方根误差RMSE0.001 2 g/g及平均相对偏差百分比E16.0%;此外,生物结皮加剧了土壤水汽吸附与解吸附曲线之间的滞后效应,其滞后指数平均是裸沙的2.0～2.9倍。水汽凝结结果显示,水汽凝结过程均受气温与相对湿度等气象因子制约,且生物结皮覆盖下表层土壤的水汽凝结和蒸发过程相较于裸沙更为迅速。同时,生物结皮的日均水汽凝结量是裸沙的1.6～1.8倍。综上,干旱和半干旱地区生物结皮覆盖显著提高了表层土壤的水汽吸附能力、并增加了水汽凝结量,对区域表层土壤的水分运动过程产生了重要影响。