Observations on the influence of orchard soil management on simazine movement

The concentration of simazine in surface soil was determined on two occasions at a number of sites in a 2-year-old apple orchard under either conventional herbicide strip or overall herbicide soil management. There was no evidence of simazine re-distribution in conventional herbicide strips. With overall herbicide management there was evidence of the movement of simazine from much of the area of the orchard and its accumulation in either small erosion channels or deposition areas. This was prevented by a thin litter of straw spread over the soil surface.     

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE TOLERANCE OF BLACKCURRANTS TO SIMAZINE

Summary. Evidence is presented that blackcurrants show a considerable tolerance to simazine when the entire root system is exposed to a uniform concentration of the herbicide in sand and water culture. The tolerance of this species under field conditions does not therefore seem to be primarily due to root development being limited in the surface soil to which simazine is applied. Accordingly, experiments were carried out using simazine, labelled in the ring with ¹⁴C, to determine whether there were restrictions to the uptake of the herbicide by the roots and its translocation to the xylem sap and leaves, and whether there was extensive breakdown of simazine in the plant. The results of these experiments are compared with those on two susceptible species, barley and marrow.
Although simazine appeared to be metabolized to a greater extent in blackcurrants, and was less readily translocated from the roots, than in the susceptible species, a substantial proportion of the labelled material in the leaves was present as unchanged simazine. Studies on the effects of simazine on the rate of transpiration of detached leaves of the three species suggested that in blackcurrants there was a restriction to movement of the herbicide from the conducting tissue in the leaves to the mesophyll; this was confirmed by autoradiographs. It is suggested that this restriction, combined with partial breakdown of the herbicide in the leaves, may be responsible for the tolerance of blackcurrants to simazine.
Résistance du cassissier à la simazine     

Simazine dynamics in a vineyard soil at Casablanca valley, Chile

Field dissipation, soil movement and laboratory leaching studies were performed to elucidate the effect of two rainfall amounts in the behaviour and environmental fate of simazine under climatic conditions at Casablanca Valley, Chile. Dissipation and soil movement were studied in a field vineyard with a sandy loam soil (Inceptisol; 74.08% sand; 14.87% silt and 11.04% clay). Simazine was applied to bare soil at 2.0 kg AI ha(-1), and its concentration was measured using immunoassay (ELISA) at 0, 10, 20, 40 and 90 days after application under two rainfall amounts, natural field conditions (39 mm) and modified conditions (39 + 180 mm). Simazine leaching was studied using soil core PVC lysimeters (0.9 m height; 0.22 m diameter). Field dissipation data were adjusted with a bi-exponential model. Half-life (DT(50)) values varied between 31.3 (+/-2.5) and 19.0 (+/-4.2) days under natural and modified conditions, respectively. Simazine K(d) varied from 0.42 to 2.15 (K(oc) 32.6-216.2) in the soil profile. Simazine was detected at a 90-cm soil depth in concentrations of 0.0085 (+/-0.0043) mg kg(-1) and 0.0321 (+/-0.001) mg kg(-1) under field and modified conditions, respectively. The maximum simazine leachate concentrations were 0.013 (+/-0.00084) mg litre(-1) (0.012% of total applied simazine) and 0.0084 (+/-0.00082) mg litre(-1) (0.11% of total applied simazine) for field and modified conditions respectively. These data indicate that water quantity has a significant effect on the DT(50) and the amount of simazine that moved through the soil profile, but not on the soil depth reached by this herbicide.     

Effects of soil moisture content on the availability of soil-applied herbicides to plants

The phytotoxicities of atrazine, simazine, linuron, lenacil and aziprotryne were increased as the moisture content of the soil increased. Results from studies with ¹⁴C-labelled atrazine suggested that these differences could be related to differences in concentrations of herbicide accumulated by the plants. Total uptake of atrazine was directly proportional to water uptake, but a comparison of the amounts taken up with those supplied by mass-flow in the transpiration stream suggested that some exclusion factor was operative. It was concluded that herbicide transport within the soil-plant system was the main factor affecting phytotoxicity under the different soil moisture regimes. The significance of the results to herbicide behaviour under field conditions is discussed.     

喷灌冬小麦农田土壤水分分布特征及水量平衡

以传统地面灌溉(畦灌)为对照,分析了喷灌条件下,冬小麦农田土壤水分分布特征和水量平衡。结果表明:喷灌条件下土壤水分运动表现出明显的非饱和土壤水运动特征,地面灌溉条件下土壤水分运动具有饱和土壤水运动的特征。喷灌条件下灌溉水主要分布在土壤表层0~50 cm范围内,地面灌溉条件下灌溉水可达地表以下150 cm处。喷灌条件下,没有明显的土壤水分渗漏发生;地面灌溉条件下,土壤水分渗漏量占灌溉水量的10%左右。2003年和2004年试验期间,喷灌蒸散量分别为312.2 mm和324.4 mm,分别比地面灌溉蒸散量少13.1 mm和35.1mm。     

Enhanced degradation of some soil-applied herbicides

In a field experiment involving repeated herbicide application, persistence of simazine was not affected by up to three previous doses of the herbicide. With propyzamide, there was a trend to more rapid rates of degradation with increasing number of previous treatments. Persistence of linuron and alachlor was affected only slightly by prior applications. In a laboratory incubation with soil from the field that had received four doses of the appropriate herbicide over a 12–month period, there was again no effect from simazine pretreatments on rates of loss. However, propyzamide, linuron and alachlor all degraded more rapidly in the previously treated than in similar untreated soil samples. Propyzamide, linuron, alachlor and napropamide degradation rates were all enhanced by a single pretreatment of soil in laboratory incubations, whereas degradation rates of isoproturon, metazachlor, atrazine and simazine were the same in pretreated and control soil samples.     

The comparative behaviour of simazine and terbacil in soils

Adsorption of simazine (2-chloro-4,6-bisethyl-amino-1,3,5-triazine) was 2.2–4 times greater than that of terbacil (5-chloro-6-methyl-3-t-butyl-uracil) in the same soils and adsorption of both herbicides was 2–4 times greater in the topsoils than subsoils. Adsorption was inversely correlated with herbicide movement in a thick-layer chromatography system. One year after application of 3 kg/ha to field plots, simazine residues were highest near the soil surface, whereas terbacil residues increased with soil depth in the sandy and sandy loam soils. Total residues recovered from the upper 25 cm of soils was 5% or less of the simazine originally applied, and 10% or less of the applied terbacil. In an oat seedling bio-assay, the GR₅₀ values were generally 1.5–3 times higher for simazine than for terbacil in the same soils.     

Simulation of herbicide persistence in soil .I. Simazine and prometryne

The effects of soil temperature and soil moisture content on the rates of degradation of simazine and prometryne were measured under controlled conditions. The time for 50% disappearance of simazine in a sandy loam soil varied from 37 days at 25°C and 13 % soil moisture to 234 days at 15°C and 7% soil moisture. With prometryne, changes in soil moisture content had a greater effect on the rate of loss than similar changes with simazine. The time for 50% disappearance at 25°C was increased from 30 to 590 days with a reduction in soil moisture content from 14 to 5%. With both herbicides, the rate of degradation increased as the initial herbicide concentration decreased and the data suggest that a hyperbolic rate law may be more appropriate than simple first-order kinetics. Degradation curves for three separate field applications of the two herbicides were simulated using the laboratory data and the relevant meteorological records in a computer program. A close fit to the observed pattern of loss of incorporated prometryne was obtained, but prometryne surface-applied was lost rapidly during the first 30–40 days after application. This initial rapid loss could not be predicted by the program. With simazine, the patterns of loss of surface and incorporated treatments were similar, but the simulation model tended to overestimate residue levels. Possible reasons for the discrepancies are discussed.     

The degradation of simazine, linuron and propyzamide in different soils

Simazine, linuron and propyzamide were incubated in 18 different soils at 25°C and field capacity soil moisture content. The degradation of each herbicide followed first-order kinetics. The half-life of simazine varied from 20 to 44 days, that of linuron from 22 to 86 days and that of propyzamide from 10 to 32 days. The rate of linuron degradation was highly significantly correlated with soil organic matter content, clay content, soil respiration and the extent of herbicide adsorption by the soil. The rate of simazine degradation was significantly and negatively correlated with soil pH, but the rate of propyzamide degradation was not related with any of the soil factors examined.     

The influence of water solubility on the movement and degradation of simazine in a fallow soil

The movement and degradation of simazine in the field during winter and summer were measured and compared with simulations using a simple model. The model only simulated simazine behaviour closely when water solubility was taken into account. Relationships between water solubility, melting point, soil adsorption and octan-1-ol/water partition coefficient indicate that, at agricultural rates of application, water solubility will only have an important influence on behaviour for relatively polar chemicals with high melting points.     

Measurement and simulation of the movement and degradation of atrazine and metribuzin in a fallow soil

The movement and persistence of atrazine and metribuzin, in a sandy loam soil following application in spring, was simulated using two models. The first model, based on the physical laws describing water and solute movement and using measured values of soil hydraulic properties, underestimated herbicide mobility in the soil and predicted too rapid drying of the deeper soil layers. The accuracy of the simulations was improved by empirically reducing the measured hydraulic conductivities by a factor of 4. This probably reflects the difficulties of obtaining reliable measurements of soil hydraulic properties. A second and simpler model, which simulated water and herbicide movement using mobile and immobile water categories, accurately predicted soil water contents. It tended to underestimate herbicide movement at short times after application, and to overestimate movement later in the experiments. A comparison of different methods of simulating herbicide degradation showed that prediction of degradation rates in the field from laboratory data can be unsatisfactory with some compounds.     

Movement of pendimethalin,ioxynil and soil particles to field drainage tiles

Knowledge of the movement of herbicides and soil particles to sub-surface tile drainage may help to predict chemical leaching to surface waters and deeper groundwater systems. The movement of pendimethalin (2 years), ioxynil (1 year) and soil particles (3 years) to two tile drains was investigated on a sandy loam soil under natural weather conditions. Herbicide and particle concentrations in the drain water showed a very dynamic pattern. The largest herbicide concentrations were detected during the first tile drain flow events after application. Very little herbicide was lost with drain water later than 2 months after application. The turbidity, reflecting concentrations of soil particles, correlated positively and strongly with the pendimethalin concentration and negatively with the rate of drain water discharge, whereas it was uncorrelated with the ioxynil concentration. Peak turbidity values occurred during or shortly after rainfall events, either in break of frost situations, or on unfrozen soil coinciding with the occurrence of peak moisture contents in the topsoil well (3-7%) above field capacity. On average, 0.0013% of the applied pendimethalin and 0.0015% of the applied ioxynil were lost with drain water. The results suggest that preferential flow promotes the movement of all three substances to the tile drains but indicate somewhat different transport mechanisms for the two herbicides.     

基于HYDRUS模型的盐碱地土壤水盐运移模拟

为了解陕西卤泊滩盐碱地的水盐运移情况,基于当地2009—2013年田间水盐监测资料,应用饱和-非饱和土壤水分及溶质运移理论,利用HYDRUS-1D数值模型对当地土壤水分、盐分运移规律进行数值模拟,分析了盐碱地的水盐变化状况,确定合理的田间灌水定额。结果表明:在玉米整个生育期内,不同灌溉处理的土壤含水量变化趋势基本一致,从节水控盐的综合标准衡量,农田灌水定额为500 m3·hm-2时有利于控制土壤盐分的累积。采用HYDRUS-1D模型对盐碱地农田土壤水盐运移的模拟结果与田间试验实测结果基本吻合,该研究结果可为类似盐碱化地区农田水盐管理提供科学依据。     

玉米膜孔灌农田土壤水氮分布特性

通过大田玉米灌水试验,研究了畦灌和膜孔灌条件下农田土壤水氮运移特性。结果表明:在相同灌水定额条件下,膜孔灌土壤剖面含水率比畦灌土壤剖面含水率变化均匀,0~30 cm土层灌水后1天和灌水后5天膜孔灌土壤含水率比畦灌土壤含水率高19.2%和18.3%;在相同灌水定额条件下,土壤铵态氮含量受土壤水分运动的影响较小,主要分布在30 cm以上土壤层,膜孔灌条件下土壤铵态氮含量随时间分布比畦灌均匀,其含量最大值为41.6 mg/kg,同畦灌相比铵态氮含量增加了4.3%;硝态氮含量受灌水方式的影响较大,在相同灌水定额条件下,10~50 cm各土层硝态氮含量膜孔灌比畦灌分别增加了41.3%、96.3%、55.3%、50.7%和46.5%,膜孔灌土壤硝态氮含量随时间和垂直土壤剖面分布均匀,其硝态氮含量主要集中在0~50 cm土层,有利于作物对氮素的吸收,提高氮素利用率。     

滴灌条件下侧柏林地根区土壤水分运动规律研究

在山地造林试验区,选择了5种滴头流量,研究了侧柏林地根区土壤滴灌条件下地表积水区半径、湿润锋水平扩散半径、湿润锋垂直入渗深度、湿润体大小等表征滴灌水分入渗的特征值。分析试验数据表明:地表积水区半径、湿润锋水平扩散半径与灌水延续时间的关系可用对数函数描述;湿润锋垂直入渗深度与灌水延续时间之间的关系可用幂函数描述,树木根系是影响湿润锋垂直入渗的因素之一。在灌水过程中,湿润锋水平扩散速度总大于垂直入渗速度,湿润体为平卧的椭球体。     

用负压计拟定滴灌马铃薯灌溉计划的方法研究

对马铃薯进行了6个灌水频率处理和5个水势处理的田间滴灌试验。发现在灌水频率为1次/d,土壤水势为-25kPa时,马铃薯的产量最高。试验进一步分析了各处理的土壤水分变化特点,并结合马铃薯的根系分布特征,得出了用以拟定滴灌马铃薯灌溉计划的负压计的埋设方法,提出了用负压计拟定滴灌马铃薯灌溉计划的具体方案。     

The effect of soil aggregate size and water content on herbicide concentration in soil water

Suspensions of wettable powders of metribuzin and simazine were sprayed onto samples of two soils of two particle size grades, > 2.5 mm and <0.5 mm. The soils were either air-dry or at a water content of 12%. After either 1 h or 1 week, water was added to give a soil to water ratio of 1:1. Samples of solution were analysed after 1, 24 and 48 h. With metribuzin the intial concentration for both soils after wetting was greater from the >2.5 mm samples than the <0.5 mm samples, following application to dry soil, but by 48 h the differences were negligible. With simazine WRO soil did not show this effect at all and with Kirton soil only small differences were seen. If the soil was wet at the time of application, particle size had no effect except with simazine in Kirton soil. Generally metribuzin concentrations were higher after application to wet than to dry soils for at least 24 h after wetting whereas simazine concentrations were higher from initially dry soils and the differences had virtually disappeared 24 h after wetting. With the WRO soil herbicide concentrations in soil water were higher if the soil was wetted 1 h after spraying than if left for 1 week but the differences rarely persisted for 48 h. No such trend was observed with Kirton soil. It is concluded that the differences observed in these experiments could be responsible for variations in the performance of soil-applied herbicides.     

Movement of fluometuron, simazine, 36Cl− and 144Ce3+ in soil under field conditions: qualitative aspects

The distributions of two herbicides and two radioactive ions in field plots at two sites were determined at periods up to 187 days following surface applications in the spring. The results demonstrated the variability characteristic of field situations. At one site some fluometuron moved a short distance down the profile but after 187 days most remained above 6 cm whereas at the other site there was essentially no movement below 3 cm. At both sites simazine was almost entirely confined to the top 3 cm. The adsorption characteristics of the two compounds are similar so the greater mobility of fluometuron is probably a consequence of its greater solubility, Measurements of ³⁶Cl^? indicated a significant movement of water through the 30 cm depth studied. ¹⁴⁴Ce³⁺ used as a tracer of soil particles was of similar mobility to simazine. In general the movement of chloride and the two herbicides can be interpreted in terms of the concept of mobile and immobile fractions of soil water in which a proportion of the mobile water does not reach equilibrium with solutes in the bulk of the soil. Soil structural effects may therefore be more important than adsorption in controlling the movement of solutes and redistribution in association with soil particles can be significant. A parallel laboratory experiment showed that the results from a standard leaching column procedure did not necessarily indicate field performance.     

Dye injection for predicting pesticide movement in micro-irrigated polyethylene film mulch beds

A new method is described for tracing water movement in polyethylene film covered soil beds. Dye was delivered via a drip tape micro-irrigation system which was placed in the bed as the soil beds were shaped and covered with polyethylene film. The dye was injected into the system and irrigated with water for 4-24 h at 0.41-1.38 bar (41-138 kPa) pressure depending on the experiment. The dye appeared as blue circles on the soil surface within 20 min of injection and produced a three-dimensional pattern in the soil profile. Injection-irrigation-pressure scenarios were evaluated by measuring dye movement directly below and between emitters by sliding fabricated blades vertically into the bed at the desired examination point and excavating the soil away from the blade. The dye typically produced a U shape on the face of the bed and the area was calculated for each of these exposed faces. The area increased as the length of irrigation and water pressure increased. Interrupted irrigation (pulsing) scenarios did not alter the calculated areas encompassed by the dye compared to uninterrupted irrigation scenarios. The blue dye provided a direct, inexpensive and easy method of visualizing water movement in soil beds. This information will be used to optimize application of emulsifiable plant-care products in polyethylene film mulch beds.     

地面灌溉水流运动数值模拟研究述评

对近10多年来地面灌溉水流运动数值模拟方面的国内外研究进展进行了归类整理,并就目前研究中存在的不足和未来急待深入研究的问题进行了探讨,认为在今后的研究中应把地面灌溉入渗参数和糙率的确定问题,不同地区和作物条件下合理的田块尺寸与灌水要素的优化组合研究及经济合理的田间土地平整度及平地模式的研究,长畦分段灌、阶式水平畦灌、覆膜灌溉条件下的水流运动和合理灌水技术指标的研究,浑水灌溉和土壤气阻对地面灌溉水流运动的影响机理研究等作为重点内容。