Theoretische Betrachtungen zur reduktiven Auflösung von Eisen(III)-oxiden

Theoretical Considerations of the reductive dissolution of iron(III) oxides At the case of equilibrium, the extent of reductive dissolution of iron(III) oxides can be obtained by the Nernst equation. At a given pH, the maximum Fe²⁺ concentration depends on the standard potential E_o of the system, which decreases with increasing stability of the oxide. Crystal imperfections as well as increasing surface area lead to an increase of the equilibrium Fe²⁺ concentration, whereas the influence of ionic replacement cannot be determined in general. The formation of stable Fe²⁺ complexes or of solid Fe²⁺ compounds results in a higher extent of reduction. From theoretical calculations it is concluded, that, for the bacterial reduction of iron oxides, the electron transfer between donor and Fe(III) precedes the protolytic dissolution of the oxide.     

Dissolution of Poorly Crystalline Iron Oxides in Soils by EDTA and Oxalate

Poorly crystalline iron oxides in soils are often estimated by 2 hours oxalate extraction at pH 3 and less often by 3–7 months EDTA extraction at pH 7.5–10.5. Calculated solubility products (Ksp) of iron oxides in equilibrium with EDTA and oxalate showed EDTA to dissolve only iron oxides with Ksp > 10^?40-10^?41 at pH > 10, whereas at pH 3 oxalate (and EDTA) should theoretically dissolve all iron oxides. The different pHs could largely account for the great difference in extraction speed between the two methods. Although EDTA and oxalate seem to act by surface complexation, where the adsorbed ligand by attenuating lattice Fe-O bonds causes iron detachment, the mechanisms are considered to be different. Possibly EDTA forms tetranuclear surface complexes, which are considered to inhibit dissolution of well crystallized but not poorly crystallized iron oxides due to differences in bond strengths. Oxalate forming binuclear and mononuclear surface complexes can probably also act as an electron bridge between iron(II) in solution and surface iron(III) leading to iron(II) catalyzed dissolution of iron oxides. This mechanism is obviously of particular importance in the dissolution of magnetite and maghemite. Despite the great theoretical differences the published methods with EDTA and oxalate dissolve comparable amounts of iron from many soils and the dissolved iron corresponds to poorly crystalline (highly reactive) iron oxides, mainly ferrihydrite.     

Phosphate sorption in relation to aluminum and iron oxides of oxisols from Ghana

Abstract

Phosphate (P) sorption characteristics of six natural Ghanaian Oxisols, selected because of their hydrological and topographical suitability for agriculture, were evaluated. Availability of P appears to be adequate for half of the soils as suggested by the Bray P1 test and determination of the standard P requirement (SPR), i.e., the amount of P sorbed at a concentration of 0.2 ppm P (6.46 μM). The SPR was found to be very closely related to P_max (Langmuir P sorption capacity), which in turn, was significantly correlated with oxalate‐extractable aluminum (Al) (Al_o) and iron (Fe) (Fe_o) and related (not significantly) to the difference between dithionite‐citrate‐bicarbonate‐extractable Fe (Fe_d) and oxalate‐extractable Fe. Accordingly, P_max is fairly well predicted by the model of Borggaard: P_ca]e=0.211#lbÀl_o+0.115#lbFe_o+ 0.05#lb(Fe_d‐Fe_o)+0.3, except for one soil strongly enriched in Fe oxides, mainly goethite. This goethite was found by X‐ray diffraction analysis to consist of crystals larger than normally found for pedogenic Fe oxides. The difference between P_max and P_calc for this soil could, therefore, be attributed to the occurrence of these large Fe oxide crystals, because P sorption will decrease with increasing crystal size (decreasing specific surface area).     

Iron oxides in four Red Mediterranean soils on metarhyolite and metadolerite in Kilkis,Greece

The various iron fractions were quantified by selective dissolution (Fe_d, Fe_o, Fe_t) in four Red Mediterranean soils, developed on metarhyolite and metadolerite. They were similar in all profiles. A strong trend of iron removal from the surface horizon and of its subsequent illuvial translocation to the argillic horizons was observed. In all profiles, Fe_o was not related to the organic matter content indicating the Mediterranean xeric soil environment. The Fe_o/Fe_d ratio and the percentage of crystalline iron oxides (Fe_d-Fe_o) suggested that the pedoenvironment in which the profiles P1, P2 were formed, allowed the high crystallization of iron oxides. As indicated by the Fe_d/Fe_t values, the weathering process was more intense in the metarhyolite-developed soils. In contrast, the metadolerite-developed soils present conditions of poorly crystallized iron oxides and a lower degree of development.     

Molybdenum fractions and mobilization kinetics in acid forest soils

We extracted molybdenum (Mo) from eight acid forest soils (19 A, E, and B horizons) in NE-Bavaria and from one site in the Ore Mountains, using (1) anion exchange-resin, (2) 0.2 M ammonium oxalate, and (3) ascorbic acid/ammonium oxalate. The Mo concentrations in the anion exchange-resin fraction varied between 5 and 28 μg kg^-1. Oxalate-extractable Mo ranged from 44 to 407 μg kg^-1 and after reduction of iron (Fe) with ascorbic acid, 135 to 1071 μg Mo kg^-1 were extracted. The lowest concentrations of Mo were measured in acid and sesquioxide impoverished E horizons. The total concentrations of Mo in spruce needles correlated with ion exchange resin extractable Mo, indicating that this fraction represents Mo readily available to plants. The Mo and Fe dissolution kinetics during oxalate extraction were studied on 8 of the soil samples to obtain further information on Mo mobilization. Oxalate extractable iron (Fe_o) was mobilized within a few hours. A first order equation was applicable to the Fe dissolution kinetics with the rate constants ranging between 0.9 and 9.0 h^-1. The mobilization of Mo occurred in two distinct stages. An initially rapid dissolution was followed by a further increase in extractable Mo but with slower kinetics. A combined first order-diffusion equation was found to be appropriate for modelling the results. The first order rate constants for Mo mobilization ranged from 0.6 to 11.4 h^-1. However, correlations between the rates of reaction of Mo and Fe could not be established, indicating that Mo is either not distributed equally along Fe minerals or that there is another pool, possibly the organic substance of the soil, from which Mo is extractable by oxalate.     

Resistance of mineral soils to Fe(III) reduction

Gleying and enhancement of hydromorphism in wetland soils due to Fe(III) reduction entail a series of degradation processes. The resistance of wetlands to degradation can be calculated from the content of potentially reducible iron, Fe(III)_pr, which is found from the van Bodegom equation taking into account the contents of oxalate-soluble iron Fe_ox and dithionite-soluble iron Fe_dit in the soil. In addition, this makes it possible to distinguish relict and actual gleysols. The van Bodegom equation is applicable to soils from which the oxalate solution extracts only amorphous and poorly crystallized iron compounds, which are quickly reduced by Fe-reducing bacteria. These soils have a low proportion of Fe(II) (no more that 15% of the total iron), as well as an accumulative profile distribution of Fe_ox. The van Bodegom equation is unsuitable for calculating the Fe(III)_pr content in soils with a high proportion of Fe(II) and a nonaccumulative profile distribution of Fe_ox.     

Standard potentials (Eo) of iron(III) oxides under reducing conditions

Partial reduction of iron(III) oxides with hydrogen in the presence of a platinum catalyst leads to an equilibrium state after 4–20 h. From the measured Eh, pH, and Fe²⁺ concentration conditional standard potentials can be calculated using the formula E_o (volt) = Eh + 0.059 lg(Fe²⁺) + 0.18 pH which indicate the stability of Fe oxides against reduction. The reduceability decreases following the order ferrihydrite > lepidocrocite > hematite > goethite. The difference between hematite and goethite was more pronounced than that predicted from thermodynamic data.     

Investigation of soils developed on volcanic materials in Nisyros Island, Greece

Soils that are forming on volcanic parent materials have unique physical and chemical properties and in most cases, on wet and humid climates, are classified as Andisols. The main purpose of this study is to examine if the soils that are forming on volcanic materials under a dry Mediterranean climate, in Nisyros Island (Greece), meet the requirements to be classified as Andisols. Soils from seven sites were sampled and examined for their main physico-chemical properties and selective dissolution analysis. Dithionite–citrate–bicarbonate (DCB) extractable Al and Fe (Ál_d, Fe_d), acid ammonium oxalate extractable Al, Fe, and Si (Ál_o, Fe_o and Si_o), and sodium pyrophosphate extractable Al and Fe (Al_p, Fe_p) were measured. In addition, Al and Si were determined after reaction with hot 0.5 M NaOH, (Al_NaOH and Si_NaOH) and with Tiron-(C₆H₄Na₂O₈S₂), (Al_T and Si_T). P-retention was also measured. The soils are characterised by coarse texture, low organic matter content, low values of cation exchange capacity (CEC), and high pH values. Values of Si_o, Al_o and Fe_o are less than 0.022%, 0.09% and 0.35% respectively, highlighting the lack of noncrystalline components. The ratio (Fe_d–Fe_o)100/Fe_d is quite high expressing the degree of crystallisation of free iron oxides. For all samples tested, values of the Al_o + 1/2Fe_o index are extremely low (< 0.24%). High Si_NaOH and Si_T (arising 2.76% and 2.18% respectively) indicate the presence of silica in amorphous forms. P-retention values are very low (< 12.6%). The results indicated the absence of noncrystalline minerals except for amorphous silica, and do not exhibit andic or vitric soil characteristics to be classified as Andisols.     

Iron in hydromorphic gray forest soils

The amorphous iron content in the upper soil horizons, the profile distribution of iron oxides and hydroxides, and the Schwertmann (Fe_o/Fe_d) ratio can be used as diagnostic criteria for the degree of gleyization in the classification of hydromorphic soils. Drainage removes chemical elements, e.g., nonsilicate Fe, from soils.     

Disputable issues in interpreting the results of chemical extraction of iron compounds from soils

In Russia, iron is chemically fractionated according to a parallel scheme. Pyrophosphate-soluble iron (Fe_pyr) is considered to participate in organomineral complexes, oxalate-soluble iron (Fe_ox) is believed to enter amorphous + poorly crystallized compounds, and dithionite-soluble iron (Fe_dit) is meant to represent the free (nonsilicate) compounds. However, the investigations prove that the commonly used subtraction operations (Fe_ox ? Fe_pyr) and (Fe_dit ? Fe_ox) are invalid because of the nonadditive action of the reagents in the parallel scheme of extraction. The low selectivity of reagents requires a new interpretation of chemically extracted iron compounds. In automorphic soils, the content of oxalate-soluble iron should be interpreted as the amount of Fe(III) capable of complexing with organic ligands; in hydromorphic soils with a stagnant moisture regime, it should be interpreted as the amount of iron (III) capable of being reduced in a short time. The content of dithionite-soluble compounds should be regarded as the amount of iron (III) within both (hydr)oxides and silicates potentially prone to reduction.     

Distribution of iron oxides forms on a transect of calcareous soils,north-west of Iran

The iron oxides fractions of four major physiographic units obtained from a transect of calcareous materials were studied to assess the effects of key pedogenic processes and local hydrology conditions as well as physiographic units in controlling iron oxides forms in the north-west of Iran. Samples from different horizons belonging to six pedons were selected and analyzed for soil physicochemical properties, clay minerals, and Fe oxides forms (Fe_d, Fe_o, Fe_p). In general, the soils indicated some variation in the concentration of iron oxides that could be related to rate of weathering, pedogenic accumulations, geomorphologic conditions (as results of different in physiographic units), wet and dry cycle, and organic matter. A wide relative variation in mean values of Fe_d (6.4–9.9 g kg^?1), Fe_o (2.9–4 g kg^?1), and Fe_p (0.68–1.3 g kg^?1) was observed among physiographic units. On the plateau unit, the presence of the most stable geomorphologic conditions and high rate in situ weathering (reflected in clay content), coupled with minor deposition of sediment suggest that the soils have more dynamic conditions than other units, reflecting in the greatest amount Fe_d and the lowest Fe_o/Fe_d ratio. Fe_d content of the soils containing less clay content (15–25%) was significantly different from those with greater clay content (25–35%).     

Possible influence of termites (Macrotermes bellicosus) on forms and composition of free sesquioxides in tropical soils

There has been less concern about soil mineralogical alteration than about soil physical, chemical and biological changes induced by termite nest-building activity. Furthermore, much less attention has been paid to free sesquioxides than to phyllosilicate minerals. In the present study, we conducted field morphological observations and selective dissolution analysis to characterize free sesquioxides in termite (Macrotermes bellicosus) mounds as compared with surrounding pedons in different toposequence positions, i.e., seasonally flooded valley bottom, hydromorphic fringe and well-drained upland sites. Distinctive redoximorphic features, such as surface yellowish layers on mound structures from the fringe site, indicate possible alteration of iron sesquioxide forms in the mounds due to the transportation of soil from reductive (aquic subsoil) to oxidative (epigeal mound) environments by the nest-building activity of M. bellicosus. On the other hand, the iron-soluble content in the dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate (DCB) system (Fe_d) was generally higher in the mound structures than at the adjacent sub-surface (Ap2) horizon at each toposequence position, while there was less difference in the content of acid ammonium oxalate (AAO) extractable iron (Fe_o) as compared to Fe_d. As a consequence, the iron activity index (Fe_d/Fe_o ratio) was found for the most part to be lower in the mound structures than in the neighboring Ap2 horizon. In addition, the content of Fe_d, AAO-soluble Al (Al_o) and DCB-extractable Al (Al_d) was significantly correlated with clay content in these soils. These findings suggest that M. bellicosus preferentially collects clay particles, probably from the clay-rich subsoils, such as the argillic horizon, which has been formed by the co-migration of phyllosilicate minerals and relatively crystalline sesquioxides. The species then likely incorporates them into the mounds, which induces an increase in the Fe_d content relative to that of Fe_o, resulting in a decreased iron activity index in the mound structures.     

Soil organic matter stabilization in acidic forest soils is preferential and soil type-specific

Minerals with large specific surface areas promote the stabilization of soil organic matter (SOM). We analysed three acidic soils (dystric, skeletic Leptic Cambisol; dystric, laxic Leptic Cambisol; skeletic Leptic Entic Podzol) under Norway spruce (Picea abies) forest with different mineral compositions to determine the effects of soil type on carbon (C) stabilization in soil. The relationship between the amount and chemical composition of soil organic matter (SOM), clay content, oxalate‐extractable Fe and Al (Fe_o; Al_o), and dithionite‐extractable Fe (Fe_d) before and after treatment with 10% hydrofluoric acid (HF) in topsoil and subsoil horizons was analysed. Radiocarbon age, ¹³C CPMAS NMR spectra, lignin phenol content and neutral sugar content in the soils before and after HF‐treatment were determined and compared for bulk soil samples and particle size separates. Changes in the chemical composition of SOM after HF‐treatment were small for the A‐horizons. In contrast, for B‐horizons, HF‐soluble (mineral‐associated) and HF‐resistant (non‐mineral‐associated) SOM showed systematic differences in functional C groups. The non‐mineral associated SOM in the B‐horizons was significantly depleted in microbially‐derived sugars, and the contribution of O/N‐alkyl C to total organic C was less after HF‐treatment. The radiocarbon age of the mineral‐associated SOM was younger than that of the HF‐resistant SOM in subsoil horizons with small amounts of oxalate‐extractable Al and Fe. However, in horizons with large amounts of oxalate‐extractable Al and Fe the HF‐soluble SOM was considerably older than the HF‐resistant SOM. In acid subsoils a specific fraction of the organic C pool (O/N‐alkyl C; microbially‐derived sugars) is preferentially stabilized by association with Fe and Al minerals. Stabilization of SOM with the mineral matrix in soils with large amounts of oxalate‐extractable Al_o and Fe_o results in a particularly stable and relatively old C pool, which is potentially stable for thousands of years.     

EXTRACTABLE SESQUIOXIDES IN SIX MEDITERRANEAN SOILS DEVELOPED ON BASALT AND SCORIA

Iron, Al, and Mn were extracted by oxalate and dithionite from two Brown Mediterranean Soils, two Red Mediterranean Soils, one Vertisol and one Gley soil, all derived from basalt or scoria in the sub-humid and humid Mediterranean regions of the Golan Heights. Ratios of oxalate: dithionite extracted iron (Fe_o:Fe_d) were low in all soils, indicating that the predominant form of free iron is crystalline. Fe_o accumulates in the argillic B horizons of the Mediterranean soils, while Fe_d accumulates in the surface horizons. A large part of the free iron oxide in the surface horizons of Mediterranean soils is associated with non-clay fractions. While manganese behaves in a manner somewhat similar to that of iron, no definite trends could be discerned in the vertical distribution of free aluminium. In the Vertisol, Fe_o and Mn_o accumulate in the subsoil. Fe_d and Mn_d increase slightly with soil depth. In the Gley soil, amorphous iron accumulates in the surface horizon, total free iron in the bottom horizon. Both amorphous and total free Mn had been depleted from the upper horizons of the Gley soil.     

The effect of soil flooding on the transformation of Fe oxides and the adsorption/desorption behavior of phosphate

As repeatedly reported, soil flooding improves the availability of P to rice. This is in contrast with an increased P sorption in paddy soils. The effects of soil flooding on the transformation of Fe oxides and the adsorption/desorption of P of two paddy soils of Zhejiang Province in Southeast‐China were studied in anaerobic incubation experiments (submerging with water in N₂ atmosphere). Soil flooding significantly increased oxalate‐extractable Fe (Fe_ox), mainly at the expense of dithionite‐soluble Fe (Fe_DCB), as well as oxalate‐extractable P (P_ox), but decreased the ratio of P_ox/Fe_ox. Flooding largely increased both, P adsorption and the maximum P adsorption capacity. The majority of newly sorbed P in the soils was P_ox, but also more newly retained P was found to be not extractable by oxalate. Flooding also changed the characteristics of P desorption in the soils. Due to a decrease of the saturation index of the P sorption capacity, P adsorbed by flooded soils was much less desorbable than that from non‐flooded soils. There are obviously significant differences in the nature of both, the Fe_ox and P_ox fractions under non‐flooded and flooded conditions. The degree of the changes in Fe_ox, P_ox, P adsorption and P desorption by flooding depended on the contents of amorphous and total Fe oxides in non‐flooded soils. Our results confirm that the adsorption and desorption behavior of P in paddy soils is largely controlled by the transformation of the Fe oxides. The reasons of the often‐reported improved P availability to rice induced by flooding, in spite of the unfavorable effect on P desorbability, are discussed.     

玄武岩发育的几种红壤的矿物特征

本文主要研究不同生物气候条件下由玄武岩母质发育的红壤、赤红壤和砖红壤的理化性质及矿物组成。粘粒中氧化铁的含量都很高,为16.98±0.83%。砖红壤与赤红壤粘粒中高岭石与非晶物质的含量相近,它们之间的差异是赤红壤中没有三水铝石,而含有7—11%蒙皂石。红壤粘粒中高岭石和非晶物质的含量都低于砖红壤和赤红壤,而水云母和蒙皂石的含量较高,也没有三水铝石。粘粒含量、阳离子交换量、硅铝率、硅铁铝率、铁的游离度和风化淋溶系数等都反映了土壤风化程度上的差异,它与水热条件特别是年均温和积温有关,进一步说明生物气候因素引起的土壤性质及矿物组成变化比其它因素强烈。砖红壤与砖红壤性水稻土的差异是在氧化铁形态上;红壤与红壤性水稻土相比,后者粘粒中蒙皂石含量略高,水云母含量略低。     

Forms and pedogenic distribution of extractable iron in selected wetland soils in Nigeria

Abstract

The content of various forms of iron (Fe) (free, reducible, and organic) were determined by selective extraction methods in three wetland profiles between 1993 and 1995 seasons. The result showed that Fe distribution was in the order: dithionite (Fe_d) > hydroxylamine (Fe_H) > pyrophosphate (Fe_p) iron in the three pedons. The hydroxylamine‐Fe constituted between 10–42% (1993), 20–47% (1994), and 10–12% (1995) of the total free Fe oxides. The pyrophosphate‐Fe, on the other hand, constituted between 0.2–1.0% (1993), 19–52% (1994), and 3–9% (1995) of the total free Fe oxides. Dithionite‐Fe (total free iron oxides) content increases with the increasing depth, while hydroxylamine‐Fe decreases, suggesting that larger proportions of Fe oxides are present as crystalline forms in the lower horizons. The active Fe ratios were generally high in the top soils and low in the subsoil. It ranged between 0.03 and 0.69 (1993), 0.05 and 68 (1994), 0.05 and 0.53 (1995) in all pedons. This suggests that poor drainage slowed down soil development. Highly significant correlations (0.1%) were evident between phosphorus (P) and organic carbon; ECEC and base saturation; Fe_H and active Fe ratio. Significant correlations (1%) were also evident between Fe²⁺ and organic carbon; P and Fe_H; ECEC and clay. Furthermore, significant correlations (5%) were also obtained between clay and Fe_d; pH and Fe_d; active Fe ratio and P; Fe_H and clay; active Fe ratio and Fe_d.     

Iron distribution in the clay fraction of Cambisols as determined by Mössbauer spectroscopy,X-ray diffractometry and selective dissolution

Iron forms which characterize the clay fraction of four Cambisols from granite and the distribution of iron oxides in the soil profiles are studied by Mössbauer spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry and selected chemical methods. The results obtained show that about 50 % of the Fe_t(6–10 % Fe) is not extracted by dithionite. The Fe_o/Fe_d ranges between 0.15 and 0.35. Oxalate dissolves goethite in different amounts, probably depending on the particle size and the Al-substitution level. The highest amount of hematite is found in the samples characterized by the lowest internal magnetic fields, suggesting that the soil distribution of hematite and goethite is related to environmental factors favouring or disfavouring Al-for-Fe substitution and crystallinity of the oxides.     

Specific features of iron behavior in soddy-podzolic and alluvial gleyed soils of the Middle Cis-Urals region

The regime of observations revealed that the Eh dynamics in soddy-podzolic and alluvial soils in the Middle Cis-Urals region depends not only on the rate of iron (hydr)oxides reduction but also on the rate of opposite reactions in the gleyed horizons. Both processes depend on the temperature. The Eh value decreases on heating in automorphic soils, when the reduction of Fe(III)-(hydr)oxide particles accelerates. On the contrary, in gley soils, the Eh decreases on cooling, probably, because of the reactions opposing the reduction of Fe(III)-(hydr)oxide particles, including Fe(II) fixation on the surface of mineral particles. Fe(III)-(hydr)oxides are, for the most part, preserved in gleyed soils of the Cis-Urals; the content of (Fe₂O₃)_dit reaches 3.3% with iron minerals being usually represented by goethite. The increase in moistening influences the soil parameters (i.e., the redoxpotential rH and the content of conventional red pigment Hem_conv) in an intricate manner. Both direct and reverse branches on the curve of the Hem_conv-rH dependence point to the equilibrium and nonequilibrium conditions in the soil. The reverse branch probably stands for the initial phase of gleying in strongly humified soils, where, despite extra electrons in the solution, the brown pigment in the form of Fe(III)-(hydr)oxides is preserved.     

Factors Affecting the Formation,Nature, and Properties of Iron Precipitation Products at the Soil–Root Interface

Abstract

A number of iron oxides (hematite, goethite, lepidocrocite, maghemite, and magnetite) or short‐range ordered precipitates (ferrihydrite) may be found in soil environments, but in the rhizosphere the presence of organic ligands released by plants (exudates) or microorganisms promote the formation of ferrihydrite. Iron ions are liberated into soil solution by acidic weathering of minerals and then precipitated either locally or after translocation in soil environments. Humic and fulvic acids as well as organic substances produced by plants and microorganisms are involved in the weathering of primary minerals. Organic compounds play a very important role in the hydrolytic reactions of iron and on the formation, nature, surface properties, reactivity, and transformation of Fe oxides. Organic substances present in the rhizosphere interact with Fe promoting the formation of ferrihydrite and organo‐mineral complexes. The solubility of Fe precipitation products is usually low. However, the formation of soluble complexes of Fe(II) or Fe(III) with organic ligands, usually present in the rhizosphere increases the solubility of Fe‐oxides. Mobilization of Fe from Fe oxides by siderophores is of great importance in natural systems. They can form stable Fe(III) complexes (pK up to 32) and thus mobilize Fe from Fe(III) compounds. These higher Fe concentrations are important for the supply of Fe to plant roots which excrete organic acids at the soil–root interface. Iron oxides adsorb a wide variety of organic and inorganic anions and cations, which include natural organics, nutrients, and xenobiotics. There is competition between anions and cations for the surfaces of Fe‐oxides. Root exudates suppress phosphate or sulfate adsorption on Fe‐oxides. This is a mechanism by which plant roots mobilize adsorbed phosphate and improve their phosphate supply. Anions adsorption on iron oxides modify their dispersion/flocculation behavior and thus their mobility in the soil system. That can increase or decrease the possibility of contact between Fe‐oxides and organics or organisms able to dissolve them.