Evaluation of propolis effects on some biochemical parameters in rats treated with sodium fluoride

The present study in which 42 female rats, each weighing 200−250 g, were used covered a period of 21 days. The animals were divided into six groups. The first group served as the control group, whereas Group 2 was administered propolis at a dose of 200 mg/kg/bw in drinking water for 21 days. Group 3 was first provided with normal drinking water for a period of 14 days, and was subsequently administered propolis at a dose of 200 mg/kg/bw in drinking water for 7 days. Group 4 was first given normal drinking water for 14 days, and was secondly administered 100 ppm fluoride as a sodium fluoride in drinking water for 7 days. Group 5 was first administered propolis alone at a dose of 200 mg/kg/bw in drinking water for 14 days, and was secondly administered 100 ppm fluoride in association with 200 mg/kg/bw propolis for 7 days. Finally, Group 6 was first provided with normal drinking water for 14 days, and was secondly administered 100 ppm fluoride in association 200 mg/kg/bw propolis for a period of 7 days. At the end of the 21st day, blood samples were collected from the heart of each animal into both heparinised tubes and tubes without anticoagulants. Glucose, triglyceride, cholesterol, total protein, and uric acid levels, and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities in the serum, as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in the plasma, erythrocyte superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities were measured. When compared to the control group, statistical differences were determined to exist with respect to oxidative stress parameters which involved increase in MDA levels in Groups 4−6, decrease in SOD activity in Groups 4 and 6, increase in CAT activity in Groups 5 and 6, and decrease in GSH-Px activity in Groups 4 and 6. Furthermore, in comparison to the control group, significant differences were observed with respect to certain serum biochemical parameters, including decrease in glucose levels in Groups 5 and 6, decrease in triglyceride levels in Groups 2 and 4, decrease in cholesterol levels in Groups 2 and 5, decrease in the total protein level of Groups 4−6, decrease in the ALT activity of Groups 5 and 6, increase in the AST activity of Group 4, decrease in the ALP activity of Groups 2−6 and increase in the uric acid level of Group 2. In the groups that were administered propolis in association with fluoride, improvement was observed in some oxidative stress parameters and certain other biochemical parameters. Changes determined in the oxidative stress parameters (especially MDA and SOD) were indicative of the anti-radical activity of propolis on the free radicals generated by sodium fluoride. However, the values not drawing completely close to those of the control group can be explained with propolis not being able to completely eliminate the free radicals and the other adverse effects generated by fluoride.     

Effects of deltamethrin on hematological parameters and enzymatic activity in Ancistrus multispinis (Pisces, Teleostei)

Deltamethrin (DM) is a pyrethroid insecticide widely used in Brazilian crops and in pest-control programs because of its low environmental persistence and toxicity. It has been shown to exert a wide range of effects on non-targeted organisms including fishes. The aim of this study to evaluate the effects of deltamethrin through the hematological and biochemical parameters using Ancistrus multispinis as animal model. First, blood of A. multispinis was collected by cardiac puncture in order to evaluate the basal values of the total cell counts, hemoglobin and hematocrit rates. A. multispinis showed low number leukocytes, red blood cells and hemoglobin compared to other species. The intoxication with DM (0.1 or 0.3 mg kg⁻¹) induced leukocytosis and increases the number of erythrocytes and hemoglobin levels 96 h after the injection when compared to vehicle-injected animals. The injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) also induced a significant leukocytosis and increased the erythrocytes number 4 h after the injection. The combination of the higher dose of DM with LPS showed an additional effect in the number of leukocytes and erythrocytes. The GST and EROD activities were also evaluated in the gills and liver, respectively, 96 h after intoxication with both doses of DM. The GST activity decreased after DM intoxication in both doses while EROD activity was not significantly different. These results suggest that A. multispinis is a valuable model for ecotoxicological studies. Also, DM can affect the metabolizing system (GST) and immunologic system of A. multispinis, a condition that can be worsened in the presence of inflammation or infection.     

The toxic effects of pyrethroid deltamethrin on the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) embryos and larvae

Deltamethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid pesticide contaminating aquatic ecosystems as a pollutant, was investigated in the present study for toxic effects on embryos and larvae of common carp, Cyprinus carpio as a model. The control and five test experiments were repeated five times. The water temperature in the experimental units was kept at 24 ± 1 °C. The number of dead embryos significantly increased in response to deltamethrin concentrations 0.005, 0.05, 0.5, 5, 25, and 50 μg L⁻¹ (p<0.05 for each cases). Dose-response decreases in hatching success were recorded as 75.2, 64.6, 47.4, 26.0, 14.4, and 9.0%, respectively. The lowest concentration of deltamethrin (0.005 μg L⁻¹) produced a significantly decrease in number of dead larvae compared to control group (p<0.05). With increasing deltamethrin concentrations, the larvae exposed duration 1-48 h significantly increased the number of dead larvae (p<0.05 for each cases). The 48 h LC₅₀ values (with 95% confidence limits) of deltamethrin for common carp embryos and larvae were estimated as 0.213 (0.103-0.404) and 0.074 (0.011-0.260) μg L⁻¹, respectively. The results provide evidence that deltamethrin pollution may have an adverse effect on the reproduction and development of carp, which should be considered when this chemical is used in agricultural areas near aquatic ecosystems.     

Comparative effects of lindane and deltamethrin on mortality, growth, and cellulase activity in earthworms (Eisenia fetida)

Laboratory tests were conducted to compare the effects of various concentrations of lindane and deltamethrin on mature earthworms (Eisenia fetida) cultured in artificial soil during typical acute (14d) and subchronic (42d) exposure periods. The effects of the two pesticides on earthworm mortality, growth inhibition, and cellulase activity were determined for different exposure durations. The toxicity order for earthworm mortality from the 14-day exposure was lindane > deltamethrin, with median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀) of 162.1 and 432.9 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. Earthworms exposed to deltamethrin showed dose-dependent toxic effects on growth and cellulase activity only from the acute exposures, whereas lindane’s effects on these activities were seen correlated with both the acute and subchronic doses. Also, changes in biomass and cellulase activity during the subchronic exposure period appear to be a more sensitive parameter than the LC₅₀ value in assessing pesticidal injury.     

Ameliorative effect of lycopene on antioxidant status in Cyprinus carpio during pyrethroid deltamethrin exposure

The aim of the present study was to investigate the ameliorative properties of lycopene against the toxic effects of deltamethrin (DM) by examining oxidative damage markers such as lipid peroxidation and the antioxidant defense system components in carp (Cyprinus carpio). The fish were divided into seven groups of 15 fish each and received the following treatments: Group 1, no treatment; Group 2, orally administered corn oil; Group 3, oral lycopene (10 mg/kg body weight); Group 4, exposure to 0.018 μg/L DM; Group 5, exposure to 0.018 μg/L DM plus oral administration of 10 mg/kg lycopene; Group 6, exposure to 0.036 μg/L DM; and Group 7, exposure to 0.036 μg/L DM plus oral administration of 10 mg/kg lycopene. Treatment was continued for 14 days, and at the end of this period, blood and tissue (liver, kidney, and gill) samples were collected. Levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) as well as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities were determined in blood and tissues for measurement of oxidant-antioxidant status. A significant elevation in the level of MDA, as an index of lipid peroxidation, and reductions in antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px) and low molecular weight antioxidant (GSH) levels were observed in DM-exposed fish. Treatment with lycopene attenuated the DM-induced oxidative stress by significantly decreasing the levels of MDA. In addition, lycopene significantly increased the SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px activities and the level of GSH. The present results suggest that administration of lycopene might alleviate DM-induced oxidative stress.     

Phosphamidon induced effects on estrous cycle, ovarian, and uterine biochemical parameters in Swiss albino mice

Phosphamidon is chemically known as phosphoric acid, 2-chloro-2-diethyl carboryl-methylvenyl-0-0-dimethyl phosphate. It is a systemic and contact insecticide with broad spectrum of activity. The present investigation was carried out to evaluate its effects on estrous cycle, ovarian, and uterine biochemical contents in albino mice. Normal virgin female Swiss albino mice of 90 days old and weighing about 20-30 g were divided into five groups. Phosphamidon was orally administered at doses 1.3, 2.6, 3.9, and 5.2 mg/kg body weight/day for 30 days consecutively. The vaginal smear and body weight were recorded daily and mice were sacrificed on 31st day. Estrous cycle was affected by showing a significant decrease in the number of estrous cycle and duration of proestrus, estrus, and metestrus in all the groups except in 1.3 mg/kg body weight/day phosphamidon treated group, and with concomitant increase in the duration of diestrus in all the treated groups. However there is a significant decrease in the body weight in all the groups except 1.3 mg/kg body weight/ day phosphamidon treated group. The deleterious effects were also reflected in the loss of weights of ovary and uterus: In mice treated with 2.6, 3.9, and 5.2 mg/kg phosphamidon showed a significant decrease in total protein and glycogen in the ovary and uterus. The response of the ovary and uterus for nucleic acid (DNA) content was significantly decreased in higher doses. The observed effects of phosphamidon may be due to imbalance in the hormone or toxic effects.     

Effects of thiacloprid, deltamethrin and their combination on oxidative stress in lymphoid organs, polymorphonuclear leukocytes and plasma of rats

Deltamethrin and thiachloprid are an α-cyano class pyrethroid and neonicotinoid insecticide, respectively. Recently, a pesticide combining deltamethrin and thiacloprid has also been released. In the present study, the acute and subacute toxic effects of deltamethrin, thiachlopride, and a combination of these insecticides, on the lymphoid organs (spleen, thymus and bone marrow), polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) and plasma of rats, were determined to better understand mammalian antioxidant-oxidant and inflammatory system responses. For this purpose, rats were treated orally with different doses of thiacloprid (single acute dose of 112.5 mg/kg); subacute dose of 22.5 mg/kg/day for 30 days; deltamethrin (single acute dose of 15 mg/kg); subacute dose (3 mg/kg/day for 30 days), or a combination of these pesticides. Results were compared with those from a comparable dosing regimen with the known immunosuppressive drug cyclophosphamide. Pesticide treatments caused significant changes in the levels of liver and kidney injury markers. Antioxidant enzyme (catalase and glutathione peroxidase), glutathione and plasma antioxidant levels decreased but lipid peroxidation increased in all lymphoid organs and the plasma. Glutathione-S-transferase and especially DT-diaphorase activity, decreased after thiacloprid treatment. Myeloperoxidase activity, carbonyl content, lipid peroxidation and total nitrite levels increased in PMNs and plasma. When evaluated as a whole, the oxidative and inflammatory stresses seen in the pesticide combination groups were not much more pronounced than in the groups treated with a single pesticide. In terms of the evaluated biochemical parameters, the pesticides showed similar effects to cyclophosphamide.     

Sublethal effects of larval treatment with deltamethrin on moth sex pheromone communication system of the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis

The first, third, and fifth instar larvae of Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), were treated with a lethal dose 30% of deltamethrin to determine its sublethal effects on chemical communication of the adult survivors. The capability of all males surviving deltamethrin to contact the pheromone source in a wind tunnel was significantly reduced, but those treated as the first and third instars also exhibited lower percentages of `orientation,' `up-wind flight,' and `approaching' behaviors than the control males. Female moths from the deltamethrin treatment exhibited similar calling periodicity and percentages to the control moths during 10-h scotophase. However, approximately 20% of the females that survived the pyrethroid in the first and third instars contained significantly higher amounts of sex pheromone and wider coefficients of variation of the ratio of E12-tetradecenyl acetate to its Z isomer in those female survivors. There was no significant difference in the pheromone titers and coefficients of variation in control females and the females treated in the fifth instars. The present study indicates that the Asian corn borer may possess a compensation system by which the males that survived treatment at larval stage present a lower response to the pheromone, while the female survivors produce and release more pheromone.     

Effectiveness of deltamethrin for protecting olives from attack by the beetle Phloeotribus scarabaeoides (Scolytidae)

Deltamethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide, was tested in both the laboratory and the field, with the aim of controlling the olive bark beetle, Phloeotribus scarabaeoides (Bernard), in living olive trees. In the laboratory, bark beetle adults were exposed to olive twigs treated with different concentrations of deltamethrin. Among these concentrations, dosage at 0.05% produced 100% mortality in the scolytids after 13 weeks. This dosage of deltamethrin, applied in the field, protected olive trees from scolytid attack during the whole emergence period.     

Biological, biochemical, and molecular parameters of Helisoma duryi snails exposed to the pesticides Malathion and Deltamethrin

Aquatic environments get contaminated with pesticides residues that result from the application of pesticides in agricultural practices. The present study aimed to evaluate the pesticides Malathion and Deltamethrin on biological and biochemical parameters of Helisoma duryi snails. The results showed that LC₁₀ of the two pesticides caused considerable reduction in survival rates and egg production of treated snails. Glucose concentration in hemolymph of the exposed snails showed a significant increase. On the other hand, albumin in hemolymph and glycogen contents as well as the activities of enzymes in tissues of snails including lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), arginase, and ornithine aminotransferase (OAT) were significantly inhibited. Meanwhile, the activity of AMP deaminase of the exposed snails was significantly increased in the hemolymph in response to treatment. The electrophoretic pattern of total protein showed differences in number and molecular weights of protein bands. DNA concentration was investigated by measuring the intensity of the genomic bands and its showed its increase in the treated snails. It was concluded that the residues of Malathion and Deltamethrin pesticides in aquatic environments have toxic effects on non-target organism, e.g. H. duryi snails.     

Action of deltamethrin on N-type (Cav2.2) voltage-sensitive calcium channels in rat brain

Isolated presynaptic nerve terminals prepared from whole rat brain were used to evaluate the action of deltamethrin on voltage-sensitive calcium channels by measuring calcium influx and endogenous glutamate release. Deltamethrin-enhanced K⁺-stimulated calcium influx and subsequent Ca²⁺-dependent glutamate release. The effect of deltamethrin was concentration-dependent, stereospecific, blocked by ω-conotoxin MVIIC but unaltered in the presence of tetrodotoxin. These results suggest that N-type voltage-sensitive calcium channels are a site of action at the presynaptic nerve terminal. Electrophysiological studies were carried out using rat brain Ca_v2.2 and β₃ subunits coexpressed in Xenopus oocytes to validate such action. Deltamethrin reduced barium peak current in a concentraion-dependent and stereospecific manner, increased the rate of activation, and prolonged the inactivation rate of this channel. These experiments support the conclusion that N-type voltage-sensitive calcium channel operation is altered by deltamethrin.     

In vitro and in vivo effects of some pesticides on carbonic anhydrase enzyme from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) gills

Here we investigated the in vitro and in vivo effects of the pesticides, deltamethrin, diazinon, propoxur and cypermethrin, on the activity of rainbow trout (rt) gill carbonic anhydrase (CA). The enzyme was purified from rainbow trout gills using Sepharose 4B-aniline-sulfanilamide affinity chromatography method. The overall purification was approx. 214-fold. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed a single band corresponding to a molecular weight of approx. 29 kDa. The four pesticides dose-dependently inhibited in vitro CA activity. IC₅₀ values for deltamethrin, diazinon, propoxur and cypermethrin were 0.137, 0.267, 0.420 and 0.460 μM, respectively. In vitro results showed that pesticides inhibit rtCA activity with rank order of deltamethrin > diazinon > propoxur > cypermethrin. Besides, in vivo studies of deltamethrin were performed on CA activity of rainbow trout gill. rtCA was significantly inhibited at three concentrations (0.25, 1.0 and 2.5 μg/L) at 24 and 48 h.     

Field assessment of the effects of deltamethrin on polyphagous predators in winter wheat

In the south-west of England, cereal aphids can spread barley yellow dwarf virus and reproduce during winter. Ground-living polyphagous predators may be important in controlling these active cereal aphids. This 2-year study investigated the effect of deltamethrin on predator numbers, using pitfall traps. A randomised block design was used in an area of winter wheat (cv. Aquilla) in which deltamethrin-treated and control plots were surrounded by polyethylene barriers. Pitfall catches of polyphagous predators were reduced by about 30% in the treated plots compared with the control plots.     

The biochemical mode of action of some modern anthelmintics

The possible biochemical modes of action of levamisole, morantel, benzimidazoles and salicylanilides are discussed. It is concluded that the modes of action of none of these anthelmintics is properly understood, but it seems likely that levamisole and pyrantel act on the nematode nervous system, benzimidazoles affect cellular integrity and the uncoupling properties of salicylanilides could enable them to act at several sites.     

Effects of dichlorvos on lipid peroxidation in mice on subacute and subchronic periods

In this study, the effects of dichlorvos to lipid peroxidation were investigated at subacute and subchronic periods. Dichlorvos was given with drinking water to Swiss Albino male mice in three dosage levels as 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg b.w. Lipid peroxidation was evaluated by determining the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in plasma, determining the superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in erythrocytes. The analysis of these enzymes was done in blood samples collected from mice on the days 15 and 45. The results showed that MDA levels increased in dichlorvos treated groups. Actually MDA levels in control and dichlorvos treated groups were determined (as nmol/ml) 10.49, 13.83, 14.30, and 14.50, respectively, at subacute period; 7.77, 8.15, 10.88, and 12.33, respectively, at subchronic period. Catalase activity in erythrocytes decreased at subacute and subchronic periods in dichlorvos treated groups. At subacute period CAT activities were determined (as k/mg Hb) in control and dichlorvos treated groups, 563.45, 532.11, 524.76, and 497.08, respectively; 660.53, 588.84, 525.85, and 512.01, respectively, at subchronic period. When subacute and subchronic periods were compared with each other; it was shown that SOD and CAT activities increased at subchronic period.     

In vitro and in vivo effects of some pesticides on glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme activity from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) erythrocytes

We investigated the in vitro and in vivo effects of some pesticides on rainbow trout erythrocyte glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme. The enzyme was purified 1691-fold with a specific activity of 16.235 U/mg protein and a yield of 63%. Cypermethrin, and propoxur inhibited glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme in vitro and deltamethrin inhibited both in vivo and in vitro. The obtained IC₅₀ values for deltamethrin, cypermethrin, and propoxur were 0.63, 1.02, and 12 mM, respectively. The activity of the control was determined as 5.17 ± 0.62 U/g Hb in in vivo studies. The enzyme activities of the groups treated with 0.25 g/L deltamethrin were measured at 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h, and found to be 4.32 ± 0.47, 3.57 ± 0.39, 3.47 ± 0.45, 2.86 ± 0.37, and 2.31 ± 0.32 U/g Hb. In vivo experiments showed that deltamethrin significantly inhibited the G6PD enzyme activity after the 48th h (p < 0.05).     

PKC-dependent phosphorylations modify the action of deltamethrin on rat brain N-type (CaV2.2) voltage-sensitive calcium channel

Voltage clamp electrophysiological studies using wild type Ca_V2.2 and its β₃ subunit coexpressed in Xenopus oocytes revealed that deltamethrin increased the rate of activation, prolonged inactivation and reduced peak current. Site-directed mutagenesis of threonine 422 to glutamic acid (T422E, one of five protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent phosphorylation sites) resulted in a channel that acted as if it were permanently phosphorylated. This resulted in an increased probability of opening during depolarization and a reduced inhibition by the βγ subunit of heterotrimeric G-protein. Deltamethrin treatment of T422E Ca_V2.2 enhanced peak current ∼50% over ethanol-treated controls with an EC₅₀ of 9.8 × 10⁻¹¹ M.Phosphorylation of wild type Ca_V2.2 is evoked by the phorbol ester, phorbol 12-myristrate, 13 acetate (PMA), by activating endogenous protein kinase C (PKC) in oocytes. PKC-dependent phosphorylation activated by PMA of wild type Ca_V2.2 has been previously shown to slow channel deactivation and increased Ca²⁺ influx and subsequent neurotransmitter release. Following PMA-activated phosphorylation, deltamethrin significantly increased peak current and slowed deactivation of the phosphorylated channel, which would be consistent with slower channel closure, greater Ca²⁺ influx and enhanced neurotransmitter release seen in vivo. Deltamethrin treatment in the absence of PMA-activated phosphorylation resulted in no effect on the deactivation kinetics of unphosphorylated Ca_V2.2 or the T422E mutant. Thus, Ca_V2.2 is modified by deltamethrin but the resulting perturbations are dependent upon its PKC-dependent phosphorylation state.