中美国有林森林经营计划制定比较研究

美国是世界上林业较发达国家之一,国有林经营有着悠久的历史。文中对比分析了中美国有林森林经营计划的发展历程、法律基础、制定过程以及森林计划内容。针对我国国有林森林计划中的不足,提出:1）加强国有林森林经营计划制定中的公众参与;2）细化国有林管理,重视可获取的最佳科学信息;3）加强计划评估、制定、监测的适应性管理;4）以可持续经营为核心制定国有林森林经营计划;5）转换立法思路,完善国有林相关法律法规。     

新西兰森林采伐管理制度与借鉴

森林采伐管理是森林资源管理的核心内容之一。在计划经济条件下制定的中国森林采伐管理制度对于森林资源保护起到了重要作用。但是, 随着市场经济不断完善、集体林权制度改革不断深入, 这种管理制度已经不适应现代林业发展的需要, 亟待完善。分析了新西兰在森林采伐方面实施的分类采伐管理、森林可持续经营计划、森林可持续经营许可证、年度采伐计划等管理措施, 期望能为完善中国森林采伐管理制度提供参考模式和经验借鉴。     

An Internet-Supported Planning Approach for Joint Ownership Forest Holdings

This article proposes a planning approach for private forest holdings that have more than one decision maker, e.g. a heirship group or a joint ownership between siblings. Through a case study example, we illustrate the phases of the proposed planning process and describe the communication and planning tools used in this process. The final aim is that in the future the forest planners’ toolkit would include this kind of approach for rather common situations where it is not easy to reach all the owners for synchronous face-to-face planning sessions. The process started with initial telephone interviews with the forest owners. From these interviews appropriate alternative forest plans were developed. Indicators and their values from the forest plans were inputted into the Mesta internet application. The forest owners were also given guidance on how to use the program. After this they were given time to independently use the program. Once the forest owners finished the use of the program, the results were collected and analyzed. Among the alternative forest plans, one was approved by all of the forest owners. The results of trial use involving a North-Karelian forest holding were encouraging. The main benefits of the approach according to the participants were learning that there are alternatives between which to choose, and reaching a common base level of understanding holding’s production possibilities for future decisions. After developing the process and technical tools further, the proposed model could serve joint ownerships over distance also in practice and in larger scale, and, as a result, foster owners’ engagement on their own forest.     

Forest resources and timber production of Ghana: Current instruments for sustainable development

The decline of the natural tropical high forest has reached a critical stage in Ghana’s forestry history. Timber resources are over-exploited, degraded and further production prospects are questionable and of concern to forest management. The objective of this paper is to discuss some of the institutional measures and development instruments being taken in Ghana towards the feasibility of achieving sustainable management of the high forest for timber and other commodity products, as well as conserving other forest resources. This paper, therefore, provides institutional measures and structures, regulatory and economic instruments, currently being taken to ensure effective forest management and increase the productivity of the land and logging. The role of collaborative management approach of both natural reserved and unreserved high forests and to promote integrated farm forestry is explained. Effective management of the high forest resource demands close harmonizing of instruments and mechanisms, both internal and external to forestry, and which encourage stakeholders to participate actively in decision making that affects the resource quality and its production status. Currently, different instruments including regulatory, property rights, motivational, hypothecation, information supply and economic are being applied in Ghana to achieve sustainable forest resource management and timber production. These instruments are not mutually exclusive in their current application, but rather complementary. Thus, an effective mix of instruments is necessary to promote and make feasible, sustainable forestry in Ghana’s socioeconomic development objectives.     

Attitudes of small-scale forest owners to their properties in an ageing society: Findings of survey in Yamaguchi prefecture, Japan

Populations of most developed countries have been ageing, and the populations of Japanese mountain villages are estimated to have reached into a super-ageing society. In particular, because forestry is unprofitable and due to the economic recession in Japan, many small-scale forest owners face the problems of ageing. For policy-makers, it is important to assess the socioeconomic impacts of forest owners’ ageing in order to ensure the sustainable management of forests. A survey was conducted of forest owners in Yamaguchi Prefecture, which is famous for overall depopulation and ageing of the rural population. It was found that 83% of 687 plantation forest owners who responded in the survey were 60 years or older and 76% did not have forestry income over the past three years, but 81% had kept up ownership of their forest as the traditional family property. In terms of forest management intentions, the respondents were found to consist of four types, namely ‘family management’, ‘commissioned management’, ‘de-accession’ and ‘possession without proper management’. Differences in evaluations of hypothetical policies were found among the four types.     

国有林场森林经营类型与经营作业法的制定研究 —— 以茂名市国有荷塘林场为例

目前广东省开展的国有林场森林经营方案的编制与传统森林经营方案编制有所不同,是在国 家和广东省森林经营规划指导下的多功能森林经营方案编制新技术体系。文章以广东省茂名市国有荷塘 林场为例,通过分析国家和省的森林经营规划、林场森林资源、林场性质,为林场制定了相应的 12 种森 林经营类型和 12 种森林经营作业法等关键内容。这些重要内容成为林场森林经营方案编制的主体内容, 为方案编制服务,可满足林场 8 年经理期内的各种经营要求,实现森林高效可持续发展的需要。     

Conservation and restoration of degraded ecosystems in arid and semi-arid areas of northwest China

In “West Development” of China, one of the most important activities is the Natural Forest Protection Program, designed to swiftly convert the focus of management and utilization of the natural forests from a timber orientation towards forest conservation, sustainable management and environmental protection. The project covered almost all the arid and semi-arid regions in Northwest region. Accompanying this great campaign this paper studied the conservation and restoration model of degraded ecosystems in arid and semi-arid lands in Northwest China. The past practices have resulted in considerably natural forest degradation and loss through land conversion (primarily for agriculture), over-harvesting, inadequate reforestation and lack of protection. The consequences have been the loss of soil and water resources, diminished timber production capacity on a sustainable basis, and environmental losses. This paper applied Aronson’s restoration model and proposed the conservation, restoration, re-allocation and preservation program for the implementation of environmental improvement and natural forest conservation.     

Forest gap dynamics and tree regeneration

When one or a few canopy trees die (or are injured) in a forest, small openings, which are called ‘gaps,’ are formed in the forest canopy and are then filled with other trees. This sort of forest dynamics is termed gap dynamics; a large number of papers and data on gap dynamics have been accumulated since the 1970’s, and gap dynamics has been described in many forest types. In this review, I introduce the basic concepts of gap dynamics and summarize major issues on gap dynamics relating to tree regeneration, with many references. Although enormous studies on gap dynamics of natural forests have been conducted, applications of gap dynamics to forest practice are limited. However, accumulated knowledge on gap dynamics should be useful for sustainable forest ecosystem management, as much of the literature suggests. Recipient of the Japanese Forestry Society Award 2000.     

国际贸易将迫使各国在近期内实施森林“持续经营”

不论发达国家,还是发展中国家,都在为２０００年前实施“森林持续经营”而努力。届时,凡被认为是非持续经营下的林产品,都将不得进入国际市场。作者简要说明“永续利用”、“持续发展”与“持续经营”三者的关系,呼吁中国林学界迅速行动,讨论制定中国的森林持续经营的定义和标准。作者认为,提高森林生产率是实现“持续经营”的关键。     

Sustainable development and sustainable forestry: analogies,differences, and the role of flexibility

Various approaches have been developed to achieve sustainability in forestry, under changing social needs and, consequently, changing definitions of sustainability. This has led to the confusing situation in which various groups have different understandings of the meaning of ‘sustainability’. Likewise, the concepts utilized to achieve sustainability, often with a poorly defined objective, are sometimes not clear and/or inconsistent as a systematic overview regarding definitions and concepts is lacking. Based on a literature review, this paper discusses related terms such as sustainability, sustained yield management, sustainable forestry, sustainable forest management and sustainable development: their history, concepts and relationships, from a European perspective. Finally, flexibility is proposed as a solution to overcome the identified shortcomings at all scales, while focussing on the enterprise level. The origin of the sustainability concept in forestry was first driven by forest experts, while participatory elements have been considered since the more recent idea of sustainable development. Since then, much effort has been made to achieve intragenerational fairness by creating an improved participatory process. Concurrently, the original idea of sustainable forestry as long-term and future-oriented management, considering future generations’ needs fell behind. An increasing standing timber volume in Europe and the discussion on climate change brought new interest in how to cope with risks in the context of pervasive future uncertainties within the scope of promoting sustainable development. Although the consideration of risk has been concentrated on as a topic in forest science in recent years, studies have mainly focused on the enhancement of forest resistance against disturbances. However, precaution and risk avoidance alone are probably insufficient to achieve an improved sustainable development that focuses on intergenerational fairness, as these more defensive approaches may disregard important management opportunities involved with an uncertain future. A perhaps more promising approach, the idea of future options and the ability to respond to changing social and biophysical circumstances (i.e. flexibility) as criteria for sustainable development have only shown a shadowy existence up to now. To further develop the consistency of sustainability concepts, a shift of sustainability approaches from continuity towards flexibility options is proposed.     

Defining the forest landowner’s utility–loss compensative subsidy level for a biodiversity object

New, cost efficient and voluntary biodiversity protection tools may require bidding price definition on part of the seller. Both the seller and the buyer can withdraw from negotiations if they find that the conditions of the protection contract are unacceptable. However, it can be very difficult for non-industrial, private landowners to define the bidding price demand for their biodiversity objects. The terms of the protection contract, the production possibilities of the forest holding, the forest owner’s multiple forest management goals and their substitutability, and the possible monetary subsidy paid for biodiversity protection should all be simultaneously taken into account when estimating the owner’s price demand for protecting the biodiversity object. This study strives to provide relief in resolving this problem by presenting an approach in which the landowner’s utility–loss compensative subsidy can be defined based on the owner’s forest-holding level utility function and the production possibilities of the holding. The properties of the approach are illustrated by four planning cases in which the length of the protection period (permanent or 20-year temporary protection) and the holding-level goals were varied. The utility functions of the cases were derived by selecting numeric goal variables for the goals, and by defining weights and sub-utility functions for these variables. Varying subsidies for protecting an old-growth spruce stand were included into the simulation of “No treatment” schedules for the examined stand, and the holding-level total utility was maximized for every price level. The utility–loss compensative subsidy was found when the holding-level total utility equaled the total utility achieved in the plan where the stand was regenerated. This subsidy, however, is not necessarily the exact price that the owner should ask from the buyer; all prices above the defined subsidy level will increase owner’s utility if the buyer accepts them. It was concluded that the presented approach provided consistent results in the four cases and that it thus offers valuable decision support for current biodiversity-protection programs.     

Deforestation and degradation of natural resources in Ethiopia: Forest management implications from a case study in the Belete-Gera Forest

The major causes of deforestation and degradation of natural resources in the Belete-Gera Forest of Ethiopia are coffee production activities and encroachment into forestland to expand farmland and pasture. Population growth, and the government’s land-reform and re-settlement programs have caused local residents to lose harmony with the land. Forest management in this area hasn’t yet been fully developed. The objectives of this study are to identify the extent of deforestation and natural resource degradation, in preparation for a sound management plan. Encroachment of farmland and pasture into natural forest during the past four years has been identified through interviews and aerial photo interpretation. The encroachment rate is 1.45% per year. Encroachment occurred mostly on areas with gentle slopes adjacent to populated villages and along roads and footpaths. The extent and impact of coffee production activities were examined through agency documents, forest survey data and vegetation survey. It is estimated that up to 49% of the accessible natural forest is under the influence of coffee production activities, among which collecting of naturally grown coffee beans has the least and the coffee plantations has the most impact on the natural forest. Coffee plantations in natural forest have reduced the forest density and species diversity. Age structure of the trees is limited to mature and old classes only, which eventually endangers their function as shade for coffee plantations. This project was funded by the Japan International Cooperation Agency.     

提高认识 明确目标 加快推进森林可持续经营管理试点进程

以全国森林可持续经营实验示范工作总结为切入点,提出了我国现阶段森林可持续经营管理的体系框架和实现途径:即建设好一个平台,协调好两个关系,做好三项工作,用好四个机制。"建设好一个平台"就是建设森林资源管理信息系统,为森林经营规划和管理提供依据;"协调好两个关系"就是既要协调好商品林经营与生态管理的关系,又要协调好公益林保护与经营的关系,实现森林总体效益的最大化;"做好三项工作"就是编制好县级森林可持续经营规划,编制好森林经营方案,开发好多种森林经营模式,构建森林可持续经营技术体系;"用好四个机制"就是用好市场机制、政府调控机制、森林生态系统内部机制和森林产权机制,不断优化森林可持续经营政策。同时,针对现实情况,提出了当前全国森林经营管理,特别是森林可持续经营实验示范工作中必须解决的几个关键问题。     

国有林场森林资源可持续经营趋势研究

根据森林可持续经营理论,在系统剖析广西国有林场的森林资源经营模式、森林资源结构及其变化趋势、影响可持续发展因素的基础上,按照分类经营、分级管理的原则,提出了国有林场森林资源可持续经营模式:公益型国有林场应实行"多种经营",纳入各级公共财政预算,按公益事业单位进行管理,森林资源结构应以异龄混交结构为主;商品型林场应大力发展林产工业,实行"林板结合"永续利用经营模式,进行股份制改造或承包经营或拍卖,按商品生产企业进行管理,进行林种、树种和年龄结构调整,森林结构可以同龄纯林为主。     

Auctioning the Forest: A Qualitative Approach to Exploring Stakeholder Responses to Bidding on Forest Ecosystem Services

The loss of private forestland diminishes ecosystems, including wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration and clean water. The emergence of new markets for forest ecosystem services offers one solution for private forestland financing while having the potential to increase the provision of forest ecosystem services. The general public’s willingness to participate in an auction mechanism for private forest ecosystem services was assessed for a regionally representative forest in Washington State using focus group methodology. The auction mechanism utilizes cost-effective management scenarios that stakeholders competitively bid on. Participants exhibited preferences for specific management plans while also making trade-offs in order to ensure that a plan would win. Participants expressed clear preferences for recreational access, mature forest habitat, aesthetic amenities, and improved water quality. Participants were receptive to the auction mechanism while maintaining concerns over viability, transparency, and local stakeholder involvement.     

对可持续森林经营方案一些问题的思考

编制可持续森林经营方案是实现林业可持续发展的重要保障。研究了可持续森林经营需要的相关信息与传统森林资源调查之间的差距,分析了可持续森林经营方案在林业行业管理中的地位、作用以及现阶段编制可持续森林经营方案存在的问题,并提出了相关建议。     

Forest resources and environment in China

Covering a vast territory, China is rich in forest resources and diversified environments. The changes in forest resources have a direct bearing on environmental quality. This paper gives a detailed account of the dynamic change in forest resources in China, including the overall process of forest evolution, the status quo, and features of the existing forest resources and the development and use of major forest resources. In addition, it analyses the current situation of China’s environment and explores the main contributing factors based on the overall environmental situation. To achieve sustainable management of forest resources and improve the environment in China, the Chinese Government attaches great importance to the protection and development of forest resources as well as to environmental development and improvement. The paper gives an overview of current thinking for sustainable forest resource and environmental development in the future and highlights the current focus of efforts toward this objective.     

Tenure reform in British Columbia? Model,trust and charter forests

By retaining 91% of the forests in public ownership, British Columbia (BC) holds one of the world’s highest proportion of forest land under a publicsector model for the development and management of the province’s increasingly valuable forest resource. Public ownership implies that critical linkages between the natural forest resource endowment, public-sector management policies and the standard of living of the people of the province are to be forged. Yet, the emerging changes in fundamental public perception of the appropriate use of forests suggests that some of these policies, especially as they relate to forest tenure, are failing to respond to the needs of people in the 21^st century. Some of those linkages require retooling. Although somewhat constrained by past forest activities and policies, the provincial government possesses broad authority across the entire public and private forest system to regulate forest practices and determine rate of cut, stumpage, royalties and rents. It can change the way it does business. It can also devolve responsibility and decision-making to local institutions and create innovative ways of moving toward sustainable forestry. This paper argues that a tenure option developing in the United States — charter forests — may have application in BC and explores briefly how five types of pilots could be tested in the province.     

Multi-agent simulation of alternative scenarios of collaborative forest management

International calls for sustainable development advocate that forest management should be carried out in a multi-stakeholder environment. The importance of community participation is acknowledged in theIndonesian Act No. 41 on Forestry (1999). However, it is not clear how to achieve this in areas already allocated to a concession holder. Current regulations offer little flexibility for concessionaires to develop site-specific management, or to involve local communities in forest management. The research reported here examines the application of simulation techniques to explore scenarios of sustainable forest management addressing those limitations. Several scenarios have been developed using multi-agent simulation to examine social and biophysical issues. Of the four scenarios examined in this study, collaborative forest management involving both the concessionaire and the local community appears to offer the most promising pathway toward sustainability. The authors wish to acknowledge that this paper has been produced with financial support from Department for International Development of the UK, and the Asian Development Bank under RETA Grant 5812 and CIFOR. The views expressed here are those of the authors and can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the donors or of CIFOR. The authors also thank Bruce Campbell for his inputs to the paper.