Household and homegarden characteristics in southwestern Bangladesh

Homegardens around the world often exhibit remarkable variation in composition and structure depending on the physiographic and climatic conditions of the area and a wide variety of household characteristics. This research investigated whether households’ contextual attributes have a quantitative and predictable relationship with homegarden vegetation structure from a total of 402 randomly selected households in southwestern Bangladesh. The central analytical tool to test the relationship between household characteristics and the homegarden vegetation structure was multiple regression. The moderate to low regression R ² values revealed that most household characteristics were not strong predictors of homegarden vegetation structure. Despite the weak explanatory power of the majority household characteristics, time spent and homestead size had the strongest relationship with species richness and income in a homegarden. Households being the main source of labor for a majority of households suggest that outside labor shortage would not influence homegarden vegetation structure. We suggest that women’s active participation in homegardening activities to reduce gender inequality in the family which will perhaps result in more diverse and economically viable homegarden. However, increasing population density and the concomitant fragmentation of landholdings to homesteads may create opportunity for homegarden promotion in Bangladesh. Our results of decreased species richness in the homegarden with improved roads and proximity to market support the general hypothesis of subsistence homegardens and did not reinforce the general fears of gradual decline in species richness due to a market economy. Household characteristics had no influence on the presence of IUCN Red Listed species in the homegarden, except for gender and education of the household head. However, most homegardeners were unaware about the status of red listed species, suggesting that occurrence of red listed species in homegardens was by chance. Thus, efforts to improve awareness and to save and conserve rare species from extirpation are needed.     

Dynamics of Homegarden Structure and Function in Kerala, India

Homegardens in Kerala have long been important multi-purpose agroforestry systems that combine ecological and socioeconomical sustainability. However, traditional homegardens are subject to different conversion processes linked to socioeconomic changes. These dynamics were studied in a survey of 30 homegardens. On the basis of a cluster analysis of tree/shrub species density and subsequent further grouping using homegarden size as additional characteristic, six homegarden types were differentiated. These were assessed regarding structural, functional, management and dynamics characteristics. Four development stages of homegardens were found along a gradient from traditional to modern homegardens. Fifty percent of the homegardens still displayed traditional features, whereas 33% incorporated modern practices. The process of modernisation includes a decrease of the tree/shrub diversity, a gradual concentration on a limited number of cash-crop species, an increase of ornamental plants, a gradual homogenization of homegarden structure and an increased use of external inputs. One homegarden was characterised as an adapted traditional homegarden combining multispecies composition and intensive management practices using internal inputs with commercial production. In comparison to modern homegardens, this homegarden type offers an example of an alternative development path in adapting homegardens to changing socioeconomic conditions. The study of structural and functional dynamics of homegardens offers the opportunity to understand the trends in socio-economic sustainability and how these relate to ecological sustainability.     

The Effect of the Surrounding Landscape and Socioeconomic characteristics on Woody Species Diversity in Homegardens of Shewarobit District,Northeast Ethiopia

Although homegardens are most often suggested as the refuges for biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes, how the surrounding landscape and socioeconomic characteristics affect this diversity in the tropics has received little research attention. Hence, this study has examined how these factors affect woody species diversity in homegardens of northeast Ethiopia. Three landscapes which are similar in agroecology were selected and in total 54 households were used for both a survey and a woody species inventory in respondents’ homegardens. The homegardens were stratified based on their locations in relation to crop fields and natural vegetation using satellite images from Google Earth. The variation in Shannon–Wiener diversity index among homegardens and the effect of the socioeconomic factors including household wealth status, homegarden area and the households’ types of uses of woody plants on species diversity were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Altogether 53 woody plant species belonging to 35 botanical families were identified. Survey results indicated that the woody species diversity was higher in homegardens situated close to crop land as compared with the diversity in homegardens close to natural vegetation. Higher woody species diversity was recorded in homegardens which are larger in area and where the households’ types of uses of woody plants is higher. Moreover, the woody species diversity was found to be higher in homegardens of the high and medium income households when compared with that of poor households. Overall, results suggest that the concurrent ecological and socioeconomic studies are needed to design conservation strategy and policy for plant biodiversity in agricultural landscapes.     

A 6-year longitudinal study on agrobiodiversity change in homegardens in Tabasco,México

Societal processes of rural change and globalization may change homegardens and their contribution to the conservation of agrobiodiversity, particularly of species occurring naturally in regional vegetation. The best way to determine if this occurs is through longitudinal studies. We conducted such a study, inventorying tree species in a sample of 38 homegardens in 2009, 2012 and 2015. The homegardens were located in the subregions of mountain slopes, fluvial plains and coastal plains in the tropical lowlands of Tabasco, Mexico. We analysed changes in species richness by geographic origin, species richness and species composition in each inventory. We identified 169 tree species in the three inventories, of which 74.6% were native or neotropical and 25.4% introduced. Of the 140 species recorded in 2009, 88% remained in 2015, whereas 12% had been replaced and nine additional species had arrived. Mean species richness increased between 2009 and 2015 (P = 0.03) and between 2012 and 2015 (P = 0.001). Increases resulted from increased mean neotropical (P = 0.01) and introduced (P = 0.01) species richness, and constant native species richness. Differences in species composition between the three subregions in 2009 persisted in 2012 and 2015 (P < 0.001 in all years). These results show how the highly dynamic character of homegardens combines with the renewal and persistence of their agrobiodiversity, and underpins the continued relevance of homegarden for agrobiodiversity conservation and livelihoods in tropical lowlands amidst rural change and globalization.     

Perceptions,Preferences, and Attitude of Bangladesh Farmers Towards Homegarden Farming Systems

An empirical study was conducted of the attitudes, perceptions and preferences of owners of homegardens in Bangladesh. A wide spectrum of opinions regarding various agroforestry issues was observed. Landholders were found to maintain their homegardens mainly for subsistence, although some additional family income was derived from selling surplus products. Due to lack of scientific knowledge the growing stock of homegardens was not of high quality. Seedlings were mostly preferred to other planting materials. Mango was accorded the highest ‘preference ranking’ among the available species. The farmers expected a number of external support measures, including high quality planting materials, assured credit facilities, and access to state-of-the-art management knowledge. It was concluded that various perceptions, preferences and attitude of the farmers would provide a framework for future policy formulation, preparation of homegarden management plans and development of homegardens in the study area and more generally in Bangladesh.     

Plant Resources of the Traditional Homegardens in Bangladesh

Abstract

A vegetation survey in four regions (Deltaic, Dryland, Hilly and Plain) in Bangladesh was conducted over a period of 10 months from July 1992 to April 1993. Eighty homegardens (20 from each of the four regions) were assessed in terms of composition, dominance and uses of the perennial species. In total ninety-two perennial species were recorded for the set of 80 homegardens surveyed. From gardens in the Deltaic region 67 species were recorded. Corresponding figures were 56 for the Plain region, 54 for the Hilly region and 46 for the Dryland region. Species composition pattern indicated higher proportion of food and fruit producing species and the first five dominant species with the highest relative importance values were the fruit trees. Eight major uses of the homegarden plants were recorded.     

Structure and floristics of Bangladesh homegardens

A vegetation survey of traditional homegardens in four regions (South western, North western, Eastern and Central northern) in Bangladesh was conducted with reference to marginal (> 0.002–0.08 ha), small (> 0.08–0.14 ha), medium (> 0.14–0.20 ha) and large (> 0.20 ha) farm categories. Eighty homegardens (five from each farm category in each of the four regions) were assessed in terms of perennial species. The floristic data were ordinated (DECORANA) with respect to homegarden categories based on size and region. Most species were planted in the border of the homegardens irrespective of farm size and region. Food and fruit producing species dominated near the living quarter and working areas and small plots of annual vegetables and crops separated this part of the garden from more distant parts favoured for timber species. Six vertical strata were recognised with higher plant density and species richness recorded in the lower three. In total ninety two perennial species were recorded for the set of 80 homegardens surveyed. From gardens in the South western region 67 species were recorded. Corresponding figures were 56 for the Central northern region, 54 for the Eastern region and 46 for the North western region. Within regions there were significant differences in species richness associated with farm size, and within each homegarden size category there were significant differences among regions. Diversity was highest among food and fruit producing species, followed by the timber species. The ordination showed a distinction between the North western and the other regions due to a combination of lower species richness in the North western region homegardens and several species exclusive to the region. Floristic differences led to less marked but nevertheless important differences among the other regions, also.     

Spatial and temporal variation in crop diversity in agroforestry homegardens of southern Ethiopia

A key assumption in many homegarden studies is that homegardens are ecologically and socio-economically sustainable due to their species diversity. The precise relation between diversity and sustainability is still heavily debated, however. A basic question is how diversity in homegardens can best be characterized in view of the various dimensions of species diversity and their variation in time and space. This paper assesses different types of species diversity in the homegardens of Sidama region of southern Ethiopia. In a survey of crop species in 144 homegardens a total of 78 cultivated crop species (excluding trees) belonging to 10 functional groups were recorded; there were on average 16 crop species and 8 functional groups per farm. Within homegardens, plots differ in species composition and crop diversity. Four types of homegarden systems are distinguished differing in both type and area-share of dominant species, relative orientation at subsistence or cash production and overall crop diversity. The gradual replacement of enset by maize and of coffee by more financially attractive cash crops khat and pineapple causes a decrease in overall crop diversity. Our data demonstrate that it is incorrect to consider homegardens as generic systems with a uniform distribution of species diversity: important within and between homegarden variation exists. Ecological and socio-economic sustainability is not just related to species diversity per se, but rather to more specific features such as presence of keystone species and diversity in functional species groups. Socio-economic sustainability in terms of adjustment to socio-economic change implies dynamics in species diversity.     

Tree Culture of Smallholder Farmers Practicing Agroforestry in Gunung Salak Valley,West Java,Indonesia

This paper investigates the types of agroforestry system that exist in Gunung Salak Valley, West Java, Indonesia in order to characterize the differences in their basic structure and associated crop plant diversity. Data were collected through rapid rural appraisal, field observation and focus groups, followed by household survey of a sample of 20 agroforestry farmers. Five main agroforestry systems (homegardens, fruit tree system, timber tree system, mixed fruit–timber system, and cropping in the forest understory) exist in the study area, and all of them exhibit a noticeable diversity in terms of both species composition and utilization. Products from farming accounted for an average 24 % of household income. They comprised agroforestry products which contributed IDR 3.25 million/year and other agricultural products contributing IDR 1.66 million/year. The observed agroforestry systems include not only a form of forest dominated by ‘cultivated trees’, but also an anthropogenic vegetation formation derived from agricultural antecedents. In land-use classifications agroforestry systems are not recognized as forestry, but like forests they provide tree products and services. Classification will always be disfunctional if a binary system is applied, thus a more sophisticated approach should be adopted that incorporates the economic and environmental characteristics of a wider range of systems.     

Diversity, composition and density of trees and shrubs in agroforestry homegardens in Southern Ethiopia

Diversity of trees and shrubs in agricultural systems contributes to provision of wood and non-wood products, and protects the environment, thereby, enhancing socioeconomic and ecological sustainability of the systems. This study characterizes the diversity, density and composition of trees in the agroforestry homegardens of Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia, and analyses physical and socioeconomic factors influencing diversity and composition of trees in the systems. A total of 144 homegardens were surveyed from 12 sites. In total, 120 species of trees and shrubs were recorded of which, 74.2 % were native to the area. The mean number of tree species per farm was 21. Density of trees varied between sites with mean values ranging from 86 to 1,082, and the overall average was 475 trees ha^?1. Four different crop-based enset (Enset ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman)-coffee homegarden types were recognized and they differed not only in the composition of major crops but also in the diversity, density and composition of trees. The composition, diversity and density of trees is influenced by physical and socioeconomic factors. The major physical factors were geographical distance between sites and differences in altitude of farms. The most important socioeconomic factors were farm size and access to roads. Tree species richness and density increased with farm size. Increased road access facilitated marketing opportunities to agricultural products including trees, and lead to a decline in the basic components of the system, enset, coffee and trees. In the road-access sites, the native trees have also been largely replaced with fast growing exotic species, mainly eucalypts. The decrease in diversity of trees and perennial components of the system, and its gradual replacement with new cash and annual food crops could jeopardize the integrity and complexity of the system, which has been responsible for its sustenance.     

Plant species diversity of homegardens of Cuba and its significance for household food supply

The cultivation of different plants in homegardens for self-sufficiency has a long tradition in Cuba, but knowledge about homegardens in Cuba is small. To analyse this more deeply, cultivated plants of 31 homegardens were surveyed in three villages in eastern Cuba in 2001. Two of the study villages were located in a humid area with an annual precipitation of about 2200 mm. The third village was situated in a semiarid area with about 450 mm precipitation. The plants studied in the homegardens included those for human consumption such as fruits, vegetables, tubers and cereals as well as spices and medicinal plants. In total, 101 different plant species were found with an average number of 18 to 24 species per homegarden for the three villages. A broad range of species was found in all villages, because irrigation is used under semiarid conditions, which lead to a relative high similarity in species composition between the villages. But, also differences due to the climatic situation became evident, particularly with the medicinal plants. In general, homegarden production provided a broad and diverse basis for self-sufficiency of the households. Although homegarden production showed to be only a small source of income, it is particularly important because of low-paid outside work and minimal food provision of the state.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Diversity,structure and standing stock of wood in the homegardens of Kerala in peninsular India

A survey was conducted in 17 selectedthaluks (revenue sub-divisions) of Kerala state to elucidate the floristic structure, composition and the extent of similarities and diversities in the composition of homegardens of Kerala, with particular reference to small (below 0.4 ha), medium (0.5 to 2 ha) and large (>2.0 ha) holding size categories. Besides attempts wer also made to characterize the potential of homegardens to supply commercial timber and fuelwood. Two hundred and fifty two farmers were selected through a stratified random process. In addition to gathering general information on crop and livestock production enterprises, all scattered trees and shrubs (15 cm girth at breast height) on the homestead and border trees except palms and rubber were enumerated.There was tremendous variability both in the number of trees and shrubs present and species diversity of the selected homesteads in different provinces. The small, medium and large sized holdings also exhibited profound variability in the number of woody taxa and individuals present. In total, 127 woody species (Girth at Breast Height (GBH) 15 cm) were encountered. The mean number of woody taxa found in the homegardens ranged from 11 for Pathanapuram to 39 in Perinthalmanna. Floristic diversity was higher in the smaller homesteads. It decreased with increasing the size of holdings. Mean Simpson's diversity index for the homesteads ranged from 0.251 (Kochi) to 0.739 (Kottarakkara) suggesting that floristic diversity of homegardens was moderate to low compared to a value over 0.90 for the species-rich evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. The Sorensen's similarity indexes suggested a moderately high degree of similarity for the different tree species encountered in the homesteads of Kerala.No clear cut planting pattern was discernible in the homegardens of Kerala. The homegarden trees and shrubs were either scattered throughout the homestead or on farm boundaries. Farmers tend to prefer timber trees such as ailanthus (highest frequency) and teak besides fruit trees such as mango, jack, cashew and the like. Major homegarden species were represented in all diameter classes. The diameter structure, however, exhibited a slightly skewed (+) distribution pattern, having the highest frequency in the 20–30 cm classes ensuring adequate regeneration status and in that process making homegardens a sustainable as well as dynamic land use system.Standing stock of timber and firewood in the homestead of differentthaluks are presented. Average commercial standing stock of homesteads ranged from 6.6 to 50.8 m³ ha^–1 and fuel wood volume was of the order of 23 to 86 m³ ha^–1. Implicit in the high commercial timber volume and fuel wood volume is that a substantial proportion of the society's wood demands are met from the homesteads. Palms, however, constituted the dominant component of standing commercial timber and fuel wood volumes accounting as much as 63% and 72%, respectively, of the total wood in these categories.     

Ecological rationalities of the traditional homegarden system in the Chao Phraya Basin, Thailand

Although the homegarden systems in the tropics are claimed to sustain basic community needs without environmental deterioration, the ecological rationalities behind the harmony between the humans, homegardens, and the environment are not well understood. Four study sites (Sukhothai, Srisatchanalai, Ayudhaya, and Nonthaburi) representing the four Thai eras in the Chao Phraya Basin were selected for studying these rationalities. The size and physical stature of the homegardens, their plant association and community features, physical environmental factors, nutrient and soil fertility parameters, and cultivation practices were studied. The major factor that determines species selection in homegardens is the utilization of the products, while the various practices within the homegardens are determined by such factors as the species, the system, and the environment. All homegardens had four vertical stratifications, with physical structures almost similar to that of dry dipterocarp forest, but with lower height for each layer, lower diversity of plants, and sparser crown layer. The analysis also shows a high possible utilization efficiency for space, light, water and nutrients in the soil in the homegardens. Shannon-Wiener's indices of species diversity of the homegardens were close to those of dipterocarp forest. The homegardens are in-situ reservoirs for biodiversity at genetic-, species-, and ecological levels. There was no complete harvesting from these homegardens. This practice ensured minimal nutrient export from the systems, while high amounts and diversity of litter biomass should contribute to high efficiency of nutrient cycling. Futhermore, phosphorus availability could be better in homegardens. The homegardens had more favorable microenvironment with lower soil and atmospheric temperature and higher relative humidity than outside. There has been no single incident of a pest outbreak at a threatening level. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Traditional homegardens of Kerala: a sustainable human ecosystem

An analogue approach to analysing the traditional homegardens of Keralavis-à-vis natural climax ecosystems is adopted. The traditional homegarden is apparently a climax ecosystem, where ecological succession is consciously manipulated by human beings. High intensity of vertical and horizontal space use, the highly dynamic chronological structure and the capacity to perform essential ecological processes make this ecosystem relatively sustainable. Homegardens in Kerala effectively serve as human ecosystems with their low input demand, staggered supply of outputs, and enhancement of habitat quality. However, recent trends in agrarian structure and the high market orientation exert pressures on the homegarden, and its sustainability as a human ecosystem is in question.This joint paper is based on part of the research conducted by Darley Jose for the degree of M.Sc. (Natural Resource Management) at the Agricultural University of Norway under the guidance of N. Shanmugaratnam.     

The homegarden agroforestry system of Bukoba district,North-Western Tanzania. 2. Constrainsts to farm productivity

A questionnaire survey was conducted among 72 randomly selected households in Bukoba district, Tanzania from August to November 1991. The objective of the study was to identify the major constraints to increased productivity in homegardens and farmers response to these constraints. Declining of homegarden productivity seems to have been influenced by the gradual decline of soil fertility mainly as a result of decrease in cattle population, the serious outbreak of banana weevils, nematodes and later Panama disease, fragmentation of homegardens due to population growth and lack of cash. As a result, homegardens can no longer subsist farm families for the most part of the year. The actual decline in banana yield is 66% over the last 20 years. Incomes are too low to support modest investment to improve productivity in homegardens. Farmers' responses to these problems have been out-migration, a shift towards cultivation of root crops, planting of beer banana and decrease in homegarden management intensity. These responses however are likely to offer only short term and partial solutions.     

Islands of fertility: Soil improvement under indigenous homegardens in the savannas of Roraima,Brazil

Homegardens are a common feature of indigenous dwellings in the savannas of Roraima, northern Brazil. In order to evaluate the effect of homegardens on soils, samples were taken in 5 sites each in the categories new homegardens (0–10-years old), established homegardens (15–35-years old) and old homegardens (more than 40-years old) and in adjacent savanna in Araçá Indigenous Land, Roraima, Brazil. For comparison, samples were also taken in forest islands located nearby, on a different soil type, under 10-year-old forest fallows and high forest. P and K showed the greatest increases over time in homegarden soils, in comparison with levels found in adjacent savanna and under forest. Ca and Mg also increased in comparison to adjacent savanna, but levels were less than found in forest soils, most likely due to the different parent material. Zn and Fe also showed increases in homegarden soils over time. Cu and Mn levels showed little relation to homegarden age, suggesting greater effects of factors of soil formation than anthropogenic influences. Values for pH were slightly higher in homegardens than in adjacent savanna, while Al was lower, although these changes were poorly fit by regression models. Soil organic matter increased over time under homegardens, but still was lower than levels found under fallows and forest. Soil fertility improvement under indigenous homegardens can be attributed mainly to deposition of residues around dwellings, although further investigation is needed on the role of trees in accessing nutrient pools at greater depths in savanna soils.     

Interdisciplinary analysis of homegardens in Nicaragua: micro- zonation, plant use and socioeconomic importance

The choice of plant species, their arrangement and management varies between and within tropical homegardens in the same community. Relationships between agroecological and socioeconomic characteristics of 20 homegardens were examined at Masaya, Nicaragua. Variables analyzed were micro-zonation (area allocation to specific uses and management), plant use and diversity, occupation, labor investment, and product, benefit and income generation. Data was collected through surveys, participatory mapping, plant inventories, direct observation and interviews. Ten different micro-zones and nine plant uses were identified. Fruit trees, shaded coffee and ornamentals were the most important zones. Plant diversity was high, with a sample total of 324 species. Homegardens were an important occupation, with average labor investments of 32.6 h family^–1 week^–1. Families obtained at least 40 different plant products from homegardens, as well as the benefit of space for working and socializing. Six homegarden types were identified using a cluster analysis based on biophysical variables. Types reflected the relationship between income generation and the number and types of zones and plant species present. Labor inputs were high considering the small size of the homegardens (average size 3,240 m²), although no clear relationships between labor investment and plant and zone type or number were observed. Homegarden management strategies of plant selection and zonation were affected both by family choices and external forces. Although dependence on homegardens may vary according to specific conditions at a given time, they seem to be a consistent, flexible resource used to meet a diversity of needs. The methodological approach used in this paper may be appropriate for the study of other traditional agroecosystems since it includes both biophysical and socioeconomic variables, essential for understanding these complex systems.     

Effect of improvement cutting on the community structure of aphyllophoraceous fungi on Okinawa Island

Improvement cutting, which decreases tree density by cutting and thinning while leaving logging residues, has been practiced on Okinawa Island since the 1970s and changes not only the vegetation composition but also the amount and composition of woody debris on the forest floor. To quantitatively compare the effect of improvement cutting with the effects of woody debris and vegetation on the community structure of aphyllophoraceous fungi, we conducted a field survey of vegetation composition, the amount and composition of woody debris, and the aphyllophoraceous fungi flora on Okinawa Island in December 2006. We established 3 plots in forest stands without logging and 13 plots in a forest that had undergone improvement cutting from 1 to 22 years before our field survey. The number and volume of woody debris tended to be highest soon after improvement cutting. We recorded 1,172 fungal samples belonging to 81 species in four orders. Fungal species richness was correlated with the composition of the woody debris. Fungal species composition in forest plots 1 year after improvement cutting differed from most of the other logged forests. Variation partitioning revealed that the effects of improvement cutting explained 14.1 % of the total variation in fungal species composition, and that differences in woody debris and vegetation not related to improvement cutting explained 40.4 %. Changes in the composition of woody debris caused by improvement cutting explained at most 2.7 % of the variation. This suggests that improvement cutting does not have a strong effect on fungal community structure, but woody debris does.     

Species Composition,Diversity and Productivity of Homesteads in Southeastern Bangladesh

A homestead is an integrated production system where trees, crops, livestock and poultry are found in and around the household residence in Bangladesh. It is a potential production unit that provides various product, service and ecological functions. Almost all people in Bangladesh including landless households have homesteads in which they grow trees and crops even in a small piece of land. This study characterizes the species composition, diversity and productivity of the homestead production system in the Teknaf peninsula, southeastern Bangladesh. Survey data collection was from a total of 180 homesteads covering five household categories: large, medium, small, marginal and landless. Vegetable, fruit, timber, and livestock and poultry were common components in the homestead production system. Various types of plants were mainly concentrated in back yards, front yards, boundaries and corners of homesteads. The mean number of tree species per homestead was about 15. In total, 189 tree and shrub species were recorded, and were distinctly high and low in the large (363.7) and landless (55.7) household categories. Species composition, diversity and productivity of homesteads were found to be related to household categories. Richness and diversity of tree and shrub species increased with household size. Betel nut was the dominant tree species followed by mango, jackfruit and coconut. Annual income from homesteads also varied among the household categories, with a mean contribution of the homestead to annual income of about 25 %. A large portion of homestead income came from betel nut trees. There is scope to increase species diversity and income by designing homesteads with the engagement of women and other family members.