Simultaneous optimization of harvest schedule and measurement strategy

In many recent studies, the value of forest inventory information in the harvest scheduling has been examined. Usually only the profitability of measuring simultaneously all the stands in the area is examined. Yet, it may be more profitable to concentrate the measurement efforts to some subset of them. In this paper, the authors demonstrate that stochastic optimization can be used for defining the optimal measurement strategy simultaneously with the harvest decisions. The results show that without end-inventory constraints, it was most profitable to measure the stands that were just below the medium age. Measuring the oldest stands was not profitable at all. It turned out to be profitable to postpone the measurements until just before the potential harvests. Introducing a strict end-inventory constraint increased the number of stands that could be profitably measured. In this case, also the length of the planning horizon had a clear effect on what stands were profitable to measure. With a 15-year planning horizon, measuring the oldest stands was profitable while with longer planning horizons it was not. The interest rate did not affect the number of stands measured much, but it had a clear effect on the timing of the measurements.     

传感器数量对应力波检测原木内部缺陷精度的影响

木材无损检测技术是高效利用木材的方法之一.该文阐述了应力波法检测木材缺陷的原理,分析了传感器数量对图像的拟合度和误差率两个指标的影响.结果表明,当原木直径在20～40cm范围内时,若需对原木缺陷进行精确测量,要求图像拟合度接近90%和误差率在0.1左右时,至少需12个传感器才能满足要求;当不需要对原木缺陷进行精确测量,只需确定缺陷的大致位置时,宜选用10个传感器进行测量;当仅仅需要判断原木是否存在缺陷时,选用6个传感器就能满足要求.图3表4参8.     

Effect of sensor quantity on measurement accuracy of log inner defects by using stress wave

Wood nondestructive testing （NDT） is one of the high efficient methods in utilizing wood. This paper explained the principle of log defect testing by using stress wave, and analyzed the effects of sensor quantity on defect testing results by using stress wave in terms of image fitting degree and error rate. The results showed that for logs with diameter ranging from 20 to 40 cm, at least 12 sensors were needed to meet the requirement which ensure a high testing accuracy of roughly 90% of fitness with 0.1 of error rate. And 10 sensors were recommended to judge the possible locations of defects and 6 sensors were sufficient to decide whether there were defects or not.     

Propagating the errors of initial forest variables through stand- and tree-level growth simulators

Developments in the field of remote sensing have led to various cost-efficient forest inventory methods at different levels of detail. Remote-sensing techniques such as airborne laser scanning (ALS) and digital photogrammetry are becoming feasible alternatives for providing data for forest planning. Forest-planning systems are used to determine the future harvests and silvicultural operations. Input data errors affect the forest growth projections and these effects are dependent on the magnitude of the error. Our objective in this study was to determine how the errors typical to different inventory methods affect forest growth projections at individual stand level during a planning period of 30 years. Another objective was to examine how the errors in input data behave when different types of growth simulators are used. The inventory methods we compared in this study were stand-wise field inventory and single-tree ALS. To study the differences between growth models, we compared two forest simulators consisting of either distance-independent tree-level models or stand-level models. The data in this study covered a 2,000-ha forest area in southern Finland, including 240 sample plots with individually measured trees. The analysis was conducted with Monte Carlo simulations. The results show that the tree-level simulator is less sensitive to errors in the input data and that by using single-tree ALS data, more precise growth projections can be obtained than using stand-wise field inventory data.     

Effect of speed on the accuracy of stress-grading machines for lumber

Summary A computer simulation model is developed for predicting modulus of elasticity (E) of uniform lumber measured at high speed by stress-grading machines of the constant-deflection type. Simulations carried out with the model showed that speed had no significant effect on the average E measured along the lumber but largely affected E values measured at individual locations. Tests conducted at 15, 150 and 315 m/min with two machines employing different supports conditions confirmed model predictions. Ability of the grading machines to identify local E values at high speed could be improved by proper filtering of the load signal recorded by the machine.Experimental data analysed in this paper were collected when the author was a Research Scientist at Forintek Canada Corp., 6620 N.W. Marine Dr., Vancouver, B.C., Canada, V6T 1X2. The author is grateful to H. Fraser and L. S. Olson from Forintek for their assistance in perfoming the experiments. Financial support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada is gratefully achnowledged.     

Using pre-classification to improve the accuracy of species-specific forest attribute estimates from airborne laser scanner data and aerial images

The aim of this study was to examine whether pre-classification (stratification) of training data according to main tree species and stand development stage could improve the accuracy of species-specific forest attribute estimates compared to estimates without stratification using k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) imputations. The study included training data of 509 training plots and 80 validation plots from a conifer forest area in southeastern Norway. The results showed that stratification carried out by interpretation of aerial images did not improve the accuracy of the species-specific estimates due to stratification errors. The training data can of course be correctly stratified using field observations, but in the application phase the stratification entirely relies on auxiliary information with complete coverage over the entire area of interest which cannot be corrected. We therefore tried to improve the stratification using canopy height information from airborne laser scanning to discriminate between young and mature stands. The results showed that this approach slightly improved the accuracy of the k-NN predictions, especially for the main tree species (2.6% for spruce volume). Furthermore, if metrics from aerial images were used to discriminate between pine and spruce dominance in the mature plots, the accuracy of volume of pine was improved by 73.2% in pine-dominated stands while for spruce an adverse effect of 12.6% was observed.     

Stand parameter estimation of artificial evergreen conifer forests using airborne images: An evaluation of seasonal difference on accuracy and best wavelength

The relationship between the stand parameters (top layer height (H1) and volume/ha (Vha)) and digital number (DN) were evaluated for evergreen conifer stands using three airborne images with 4-m spatial resolution, which were taken in June 1995, September 1993, and October 1994 using the Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI). Estimation accuracy of the stand parameters, their seasonal changes, and suitable wavelength were analyzed using correlation coefficients and a regression analysis. The minimum DN of stands, which showed the darkness of a canopy shadow, had a higher correlation with H1 than the average and maximum DN while the average DN had a higher correlation with Vha. The green channels gave the highest correlation coefficients with H1 and Vha, which exceeded — 0.9 for the September and October images. However, the red channels had a consistently high correlation with the stand parameters for the three images. The near infrared channels gave poor correlations with H1 and Vha for the June image. Spectral variations among trees may affect the relationship between DN and the stand parameters in the leaf maturation period in June. Consequently, the late growing season was better at giving consistent results for the stand parameter studies. There was a linear relationship between the measured and the estimated stand parameters for the validation plots especially for the H1 case of September with sufficient accuracy. Nadir viewing images, which had high spatial resolution and a wide dynamic range such as the CASI images, were necessary to estimate the stand parameters accurately. This study was also partly supported by the research project, ‘A Study of Accurate Biomass Estimation using Airborne Imagery,’ of the Science and Technology Agency of Japan. Comments from the editors helped improve the contents of the paper.     

A review of the challenges and opportunities in estimating above ground forest biomass using tree-level models

Accurate biomass measurements and analyses are critical components in quantifying carbon stocks and sequestration rates, assessing potential impacts due to climate change, locating bio-energy processing plants, and mapping and planning fuel treatments. To this end, biomass equations will remain a key component of future carbon measurements and estimation. As researchers in biomass and carbon estimation, we review the present scenario of aboveground biomass estimation, focusing particularly on estimation using tree-level models and identify some cautionary points that we believe will improve the accuracy of biomass and carbon estimates to meet societal needs. In addition, we discuss the critical challenges in developing or calibrating tree biomass models and opportunities for improved biomass. Some of the opportunities to improve biomass estimate include integration of taper and other attributes and combining different data sources. Biomass estimation is a complex process, when possible, we should make use of already available resources such as wood density and forest inventory databases. Combining different data-sets for model development and using independent data-sets for model verification will offer opportunities to improve biomass estimation. Focus should also be made on belowground biomass estimation to accurately estimate the full forest contribution to carbon sequestration. In addition, we suggest developing comprehensive biomass estimation methods that account for differences in site and stand density and improve forest biomass modeling and validation at a range of spatial scales.     

Effect of harvest date,drying, short-term storage and freezing after chilling on the germination of rowan seeds

The effects of seed pretreatment and harvest date on the germination of European rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L) seeds were examined. In one experiment, seeds were subjected to drying, storage, soaking, warm and chilling treatments after harvesting in mid- and late August. In another experiment, fully imbibed (FI) seeds were given warm treatment for six weeks and then various durations of chilling (4?±?1°C) for up to 24 weeks. Thereafter, the seeds were adjusted to target moisture content of 35% and 30% or remained in the FI state and were then subjected to either subsequent chilling or freezing (?3°C) for up to 32 weeks. The treated seeds were allowed to germinate at a constant 15°C with 8 hours of lighting per day. Treatment effects were generally consistent for each harvest date. Seeds did not germinate unless they were chilled and germination rates were low unless the seeds were soaked. Warm treatment applied before chilling appeared to induce dormancy. The effect of storage varied with harvest date and storage treatment, with germination being highest for seeds harvested in late August. Mild freezing of ≥16 weeks duration following 16–24 weeks initial chilling resulted in >80% germination, more than could be achieved using chilling alone.     

刨花板厚度偏差对板式家具精度的影响

在家具制造过程中，刨花板厚度偏差对板式家具尺寸精度有明显影响。因此控制板材厚度偏差是目前刨花板生产中亟待解决的一个重要问题。     

Effect of soil temperature on root and shoot growth and on budburst timing in conifer seedling transplants

Root growth in seedling transplants of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis(Dougl.) Forbes), noble fir (Abies procera Rehd.), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.) and ponderosa pine (Pines ponderosa Doug. ex Laws.) began when soil temperature exceeded 5 °C. Root growth increased rapidly after 10 °C and attained maximum values at 20 °C. At 30 °C, no root growth occurred in the firs; in the pines, root growth was 30 to 39% of maximum. Maximum shoot growth also occurred at 20 °C. In ponderosa pine, height growth of seedlings from a high-elevation source was unaffected by cold soil, but in low-elevation seedlings it was reduced. Budburst in Douglas-fir and the pines was delayed up to 11 days by cold soil, whereas in silver fir and noble fir, it was only slightly delayed. Prior to new root growth in ponderosa pine, xylem pressure potentials and stomatal conductances during the afternoon indicated reduced stomatal opening at all soil temperatures, whereas 23 days later, stomata were open to a greater degree when temperatures exceeded 10 °C.     

Effect of pruning severity and timing of treatment on epicormic sprout development in giant sequoia

Giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) Buchh.) treeswere pruned monthly over a 12-month period to assess the effectsof timing of pruning operations on epicormic sprout development.Trees were pruned to three pruning heights in each month. Periodiccounts of total sprouts and measurement of the length of thelongest sprout were used to assess sprout development followingpruning. Sprouting was initially delayed following pruning duringgrowing season months as compared with non-growing season months.Six years after study initiation, greater numbers of sproutsand larger maximum branch lengths were found from pruning outsidethe May through September growing season. These differenceswere most pronounced in the first years following treatmentbut differences diminished markedly after 6 years. However,a logistic model to predict the probability of sprouting indicatesthat pruning severity was a much more significant explanatoryvariable than season of pruning. Seasonal differences in epicormicsprout development may be temporary and are of less importancein affecting sprout development than pruning severity. Epicormicsprouts also occurred with greater frequency on the south orexposed side of pruned tree boles.     

李树嫁接时期试验

李树是广大农村广泛栽培的果树树种,为培育优质嫁接苗,在硬枝劈切、插皮接、嵌芽接、T芽接方法上进行了生长季不同时期的嫁接探索,在嫁接时期、嫁接成活率和苗木高度上效果良好。     

Automatic recognition and measurement of single trees based on data from airborne laser scanning over the richly structured natural forests of the Bavarian Forest National Park

The purpose of this study was to test a method for delineating individual tree crowns based on a fully automated recognition methodology. The study material included small-footprint time-of-flight laser scanner data acquired in the spring and summer of 2002. The data were collected with a Toposys II airborne laser system flown over the Norway spruce (Picea abies) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica) dominated forests of the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany. The applied algorithm, which earlier had been validated for Swedish forest conditions, is a watershed algorithm that is based on the use of laser scanning data. 2584 trees in a total of 28 representative reference stands, each 0.1–0.25 ha in area, were included in the investigation. With the algorithm, 76.9% of the trees in the upper layer could be recognised. This corresponds to 85.2% of the timber volume determined by ground measurements. The results for conifers were more accurate in this respect than for deciduous trees. A negative aspect was the number of falsely identified trees, the percentage of which was 5.4%.     

土壤质地和pH值对节肢动物多度的影响

为了探讨土壤质地和pH值对节肢动物多度的影响,于2008年8月对车八岭自然保护区进行了野外调查和采样,共捕获土壤节肢动物600头,隶属于6亚纲12目,其中以甲螨亚目的数量最多。结果表明:土壤节肢动物主要分布在凋落物层和表土层,优势类群基本为甲螨亚目和中气门亚目;土壤质地对土壤节肢动物多度有明显的影响,即在同一质地条件下,土壤节肢动物多度与土壤有机质含量之间有紧密的联系,两者呈多项式相关;土壤节肢动物多度与土壤全氮含量关系则受pH值的影响,当pH值4.2时,两者呈线性相关,而当pH值4.2时,两者呈多项式相关。     

Effect of timing of precommercial thinning on the consumption of working time in Picea abies stands in Finland

The effect of the timing of precommercial thinning on the productivity of work was examined in young Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] stands in southern Finland. The common problem of large variation between sample plots in time studies was avoided by introducing a new approach based on a combination of stand measurements, tree-ring analysis and existing work productivity functions. The results indicated that a 2 year delay in the precommercial thinning of a stand was enough to cause an increase of 10-42% in the consumption of working time at a mean height of 1.5-3.1 m. At a later thinning, at a mean height 4.1-7.2 m, the increase was 8-24%. The development of the stand up to the first commercial thinning was not significantly influenced by a 2 year delay in the late precommercial thinning.     

浅论新型控制策略及其在机械工程中的应用

从工程应用角度出发，新型控制策略主要包括；自适应控制，变结构控制，预测控制，鲁棒控制，模糊控制，专家控制，神经网络控制以及遗传算法等，这些控制策略相互之间以及与各种传统控制策略之间相互渗透，交叉和结合，又形成各式各样的复合控制策略，本文简要介绍专家控制，预测控制，鲁棒控制，模糊控制，神经网络控制及其在机械工程中的应用现状，为进一步提高机械控制水平提供借鉴。     

Effect of family size and number on the accuracy and precision of the estimates of genetic parameters in the IUFRO Douglas-fir provenance-progeny trial

Effect of sample size on accuracy and precision of provenance mean height, genetic variance components and heritability were studied in a 10-year-old IUFRO Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii ( (Mirb.) Franco] provenance-progeny trial. Estimates of these parameters, and their respective standard errors, were computed for different numbers of families within provenances, and trees within families. Accuracy of mean height estimates did not differ appreciably with changes in either family number or size. However, precision of the mean height estimates was affected by changes in the family size. Both accuracy and precision of additive genetic variance and heritability estimates were greatly influenced by the number and size of families. Based on estimates obtained empirically, optimum sample sizes for the number of families per provenance and the number of trees per family was proposed and compared with those obtained from analysing the data as a provenance trial (i. e., no family structure). The optimization of sample size will improve the efficiency of provenance-progeny testing.     

The effect of rotation speed on the power consumption and cutting accuracy of guided circular saw: Experimental measurement and analysis of saw critical and flutter speeds

ABSTRACT

This paper investigates the effect of rotation speed and vibration response of a circular saw on the sawing process of Douglas-fir wood. An idling test was conducted on a guided circular saw to determine its stable operation speeds and vibration behavior. Short-time Fourier transform analysis was performed on saw idling test data, and variation of excited frequencies of the blade as a function of rotation speed was obtained. The saw blade critical speeds and the rotation speeds that correspond to saw flutter instability were identified. Then experimental cutting tests were conducted at different cutting conditions and the effect of rotation speed and saw vibration response on cutting power consumption and sawing accuracy was investigated. The results showed that conducting a saw idling test and vibration response analysis can identify the saw critical and flutter speeds, which is essential for identifying the optimum rotation speed of circular saw. There was a significant increase in power consumption when cutting at super-critical and super-flutter speed. The effect of rotation speed on sawing accuracy is complex and nonlinear. This effect interacts with feed speed, which makes it difficult to generalize sawing accuracy versus rotation speed in the circular sawing process.