Bronchoscopy of the horse.

The endobronchial anatomy of 12 lung specimens from horses and 12 healthy, standing, sedated horses was evaluated, using a 200-cm-long, 9.5-mm-diameter videoendoscope. On the basis of these findings, the nomenclature system of Amis and McKiernan was modified for identification of airways of horses during bronchoscopy. Lobar bronchi are identified on the basis of the side of the bronchial tree on which they were found and the order in which they originated from the primary bronchus. Thus, RB1, RB2, and RB3 referred to right cranial lobar bronchus, respectively. On the left side, the designation of LB1 and LB2 refer to the left cranial lobar bronchus and the left caudal lobar bronchus, respectively. Segmental bronchi are identified by consecutive numbers in the order of origination from the lobar bronchus. The direction of the segmental bronchus was denoted by the capital letter D (dorsal), V (ventral), L (lateral), M (medial), R (rostral), and C (caudal). Subsegmental bronchi were identified in the order of origination from the segmental bronchi, using lower case letters (eg, RB2, 1V, a or RB2, 1V, aV). For subsequent branching of the subsegmental bronchi, the branches were numbered consecutively by their order of origination (eg, RB2, 1V, aV, 1D).     

Computed tomographic bronchial collapsibility values over 50% may be detected in healthy dogs

Bronchomalacia and bronchial collapse are important causes of chronic coughing in dogs. The current reference standard diagnostic tests for these problems are flexible bronchoscopy and biopsy. Previous human studies have also supported inspiration/expiration computed tomography (CT) as a diagnostic test. The current prospective, pilot study aimed to determine whether inspiration/expiration CT is also a feasible test for quantifying bronchial collapsibility in dogs. Thoracic CT images were acquired using a 64‐row multidetector CT for 10 healthy Beagle dogs during maximal inspiration and expiration. For each scan, one observer measured transverse sectional areas of the mainstem and lobar bronchi, and the dorsal and ventral segmental bronchi of the left cranial lobar bronchus. Diameters for each bronchus were also measured in transverse, sagittal, and dorsal planes. Bronchial collapsibility (%) was calculated as the difference between inspiration/expiration transverse sectional areas divided by the inspiration transverse sectional areas. Mean bronchial collapsibility of all bronchi was 38.20 ± 15.17%. A collapsibility of over 50% was found in the dorsal (n = 7) and ventral (n = 4) segmental bronchi of the left cranial lobar bronchus, and the left caudal (n = 5) and right middle (n = 2) lobar bronchus. Bronchial collapsibility measurements were greater in the dorsal and ventral segmental bronchi of the left cranial lobar bronchus and the left caudal lobar bronchus (P < 0.001). Findings supported inspiration/expiration CT as a modality to noninvasively assess bronchial collapse in dogs and a bronchial collapsibility value greater than 50% for detecting pathologic bronchial collapse in clinically affected dogs.     

Endoscopic evaluation of bronchial morphology in rabbits

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate bronchial morphology endoscopically in rabbits and develop a valid nomenclature for the endobronchial branching pattern. ANIMALS: 10 mature New Zealand White rabbits. PROCEDURES: Flexible bronchoscopy was performed in rabbits anesthetized with isoflurane via nasal mask. Airways were systematically evaluated from the larynx to the terminal branches accessible with a 2.5-mm-outer diameter flexible endoscope. Airway branching patterns were identified and assessed for variation among subjects. RESULTS: Airways of all rabbits were readily examined with the 2.5-mm flexible endoscope. Laryngeal structure and function were normal in each rabbit, and airway branching patterns in all rabbits evaluated were identical. At the carina, branching into left and right principal bronchi was evident. The left principal bronchus divided immediately into the left cranial and left caudal lobar bronchi. The left cranial lobe bronchus further divided into dorsal and ventral segmental bronchi. The left caudal lobe bronchus gave rise to branches originating dorsally, ventrally, and medially before continuing caudally. The right principal bronchus divided into the right cranial, right middle, and accessory lobar bronchi and continued distally as the right caudal lobar bronchus. The right cranial lobe bronchus also divided into dorsal and ventral segmental bronchi, and the right caudal lobe bronchus had branches that originated dorsally, ventrally, and medially. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Definition of a standard nomenclature for airway branching in rabbits will allow precise localization of disease in clinical cases and accurate collection of airway samples in clinical and scientific evaluations.     

牛肺结核病的病理形态学研究

对35例结核菌素检验判定为阳性的自然结核病牛肺脏,进行了眼观、病理组织学、组织化学、透射电镜和扫描电镜观察。其病变特点可分为4种类型:小结节性肺结核、大结节性肺结核、小叶性结核性支气管肺炎、大叶性结核性支气管肺炎。病变在肺脏上的分布与支气管树分布规律相一致。本实验结果表明,上皮样细胞(EPC)不但具有活跃的功能,而且还有一定的分裂能力;而郎罕氏细胞(LGC)可能来自EPC的相互融合。     

Distribution of Crenosoma vulpis and Eucoleus aerophilus in the lung of free-ranging red foxes (Vulpes vulpes).

Crenosoma vulpis and Eucoleus aerophilus are nematode parasites that can cause verminous pneumonia in wild carnivores. There is a paucity of information regarding the distribution of parasites in the lungs and the relationship between histopathological and parasitological diagnoses in naturally infected foxes. The objectives of this study were: first, to study the lobar and airway distribution of C. vulpis and E. aerophilus in wild red foxes and second, to investigate the relationship between fecal and histopathological diagnoses. Samples from 6 sites of the lung and fecal contents were obtained from 51 wild foxes in Prince Edward Island. By fecal examination, 78.4% of wild foxes tested positive for C. vulpis and 68.6% for E. aerophilus. In contrast, 66.6% and 49% of foxes had histopathological evidence of C. vulpis and E. aerophilus in the lungs, respectively. Anatomically, C. vulpis was observed in the small bronchi and bronchioles of all pulmonary lobes whereas E. aerophilus was restricted to the large bronchi and the caudal lobes. Affected airways exhibited severe epithelial glandular hyperplasia and bronchiolar mucous metaplasia. It was concluded that C. vulpis is widely distributed in airways of all pulmonary lobes, whereas E. aerophilus is mainly restricted to the bronchi of caudal lobes. Also, this study showed that histological examination of lung underestimates the infection with E. aerophilus.     

Microscopic anatomy of the ringed seal (Phoca hispida) lower respiratory tract

The microscopic anatomy of the ringed seal lung exhibits unique features and many features similar to those described in other seal species. Unique features include: Trachealis muscle predominately oriented longitudinally; Large veins within the tracheal wall supported by elastic fibers; Goblet cells and pseudostratified epithelium lining the duct system of bronchial glands of the segmental bronchi; Lamina propria of the segmental bronchus heavily invested with elastic fibers clustered into dense longitudinal bundles; and Capillaries and venules covered with squamous epithelium protruding into bronchiolar lumina. Common features include: Cartilage support of the bronchial tree extending distally into respiratory bronchioles; Smooth muscle enhancements in the distal airways producing sphincter like formations; and Lungs extensively supported with interstitial tissue, which divide lungs into lobules.     

An ultrastructural study of the equine lower respiratory tract

The surface features of the lower respiratory tract of 20 clinically normal horses of different ages and types were studied with scanning electron microscopy. Parallel light microscopical and transmission electron microscopical studies were also carried out. The ciliary carpet was virtually complete from the trachea to the lobar bronchi. In small bronchi, ciliation was less complete allowing numerous non-ciliated mucous cells to become obvious. The terminal bronchioles, populated mainly by non-ciliated bronchiolar epithelial cells, had an abrupt junction with alveolar ducts. Interalveolar pores were common particularly in older horses.     

Anatomic study of the canine bronchial tree using silicone casts,radiography, and CT

This prospective anatomic study examined the canine lower airway lumen morphology by visual inspection, radiography, and CT of silicone casts of two dogs. Study results showed the lobar, bronchopulmonary segmental, and pulmonary lobular organization of the lungs grossly reflected in the hierarchically clustered branching structure of the bronchial tree. Study results also provided a basis for differentiating bronchial and bronchiolar patterns. Whereas images of silicone-filled bronchial lumens produced large-diameter, branching, tapering bands that radiated from the lung hilus, the pattern was different for small airways. Images of silicone-filled bronchiole lumens produced small-diameter, branching, tapering, nonradiating lines that created a speckled pattern resembling micronodules and, unexpectedly during radiography, small-diameter rings with air-filled lumens attributed to positive and negative summation shadows. Consequently, imaging patterns in dogs might be affected by pulmonary lobular morphology and might differentiate large and small airway diseases.     

Porcine fetuses with pulmonary hypoplasia resulting from experimental swine influenza virus infection

Porcine fetuses between 51 and 57 days of gestation were inoculated intraallantoically with swine influenza virus and examined 3, 7, 13, 28 and 58 days after inoculation. At 3 and 7 days, severe epithelial necrosis was seen in most bronchial buds and there was moderate epithelial necrosis in more fully differentiated major bronchi. As a result of the epithelial injury, bronchial buds did not develop further and the surrounding mesoderm failed to differentiate. By 28 days, the lungs of inoculated fetuses were about one-half the size of the normal control lungs. Microscopically, the lungs of the inoculated fetuses were composed of major bronchi surrounded by multiple islands of cartilage, medium to large arteries and a few small, incompletely developed lobules. Influenza virus was isolated most consistently and in greatest quantity from the lung, trachea and chorion of inoculated fetuses. Influenza viral antigen was shown in the epithelium of bronchial buds, bronchi and the trachea by direct fluorescent antibody staining. Hemagglutination inhibiting antibodies to influenza virus were first found in the serum of an inoculated fetus at 13 days and in the sera of all inoculated fetuses at 28 and 58 days.     

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY BRONCHIAL LUMEN TO PULMONARY ARTERY DIAMETER RATIO IN DOGS WITHOUT CLINICAL PULMONARY DISEASE

Bronchiectasis is diagnosed in humans using multiple computed tomography (CT) criteria, the most important being dilatation of the bronchi. The most widely used criterion for detection of bronchial dilatation is a bronchial lumen to pulmonary artery diameter (bronchoarterial [BA]) ratio >1.0. No studies have been performed to determine the BA ratio in normal dogs. Thoracic CT images of 24 dogs without clinical pulmonary disease were reviewed. The BA ratio of the lobar bronchi of the left cranial (cranial and caudal parts), right cranial, right middle, left caudal, and right caudal lung lobes was measured. The mean of the mean BA ratio for all dogs was 1.45±0.21 (99% confidence interval [CI]=1.34–1.56). The mean of the mean BA ratio as determined by lung lobe was 1.45±0.04 (99% CI=1.41–1.49). The range of individual BA ratios was 0.8–2.0. There was no significant difference in mean BA ratios as a function of lung lobe ( P =0.60). The BA ratio in these clinically normal dogs was consistent and may be a useful tool in evaluating for bronchiectasis on CT images. BA ratios >2.0 were not identified in this population, suggesting a threshold to differentiate normal from abnormal bronchi.     

Hypertrophic osteopathy associated with a bronchial foreign body and lobar pneumonia in a dog

Hypertrophic osteopathy was diagnosed in a dog with a bronchial foreign body and lobar pneumonia. Hypertrophic osteopathy is generally associated with primary or secondary neoplasms of the lungs and rarely associated with nonneoplastic thoracic lesions. The foreign body and affected lung lobe were removed by pneumonectomy, resulting in recovery of the dog and resolution of the hypertrophic osteopathy lesions.     

Bronchitis and bronchiolitis in a cat with cilia-associated respiratory bacillus-like organisms

A 10-year-old male domestic shorthair cat died during anesthesia. Grossly, the lungs had multiple nodules corresponding to inflamed airways (bronchitis and bronchiolitis). Microscopically, cuffs and nodular aggregates of lymphocytes and plasma cells surrounded airways. Peribronchiolar fibrosis was also common. Globule leukocytes infiltrated the respiratory epithelium of noninflamed or mildly inflamed bronchi. Argyrophilic and filamentous organisms, consistent with cilia-associated respiratory bacillus-like organisms (CLO), were intermixed with cilia of respiratory epithelium. Ultrastructurally, CLO were longer and thinner than cilia and had a distinct trilaminar membrane, central electron-lucent areas, and no specialized external structures. Silver stained lung sections from 18 additional feline airways revealed similar bacilli in 2/9 normal lungs, 1/7 lungs with bronchitis and bronchiolitis, and 1/2 lungs with pneumonia. The significance of CLO in the pulmonary lesions was not determined.     

不同海拔高度绵羊肺内支气管及肺动脉分支的光镜观察

对青海省尖扎县（海拔高度３０００ｍ左右）藏羊和山东省东平县（海拔高度５０ｍ以下）小尾寒羊肺内各级支气管及肺动脉的分支进行光镜下的比较组织学观察。结果表明：藏羊和小尾寒羊的小支气管和细支气管管径基本相同，藏羊终末细支气管较小尾寒羊的管径大（Ｐ〈０．０５）。藏羊小支气管旁肺动脉及终末细支气管旁肺动脉的管径均大于小尾寒羊的管径（Ｐ〈０．０５），（Ｐ〈０．０１）。     

A lymphomatoid granulomatosis of the lungs in young dogs.

Clinical signs in three young dogs with primary lung neoplasms included cough, weight loss and anorexia. Chest radiographs taken in the terminal stages of the disease showed nodular and diffuse consolidation of the lungs typical of primary neoplasms. Macroscopically the lungs were infiltrated by firm, pale tissue; similar tissue replaced the enlarged bronchial lymph nodes. In two dogs similar deposits were found also in the liver and spleen. The infiltrates were composed of atypical, polymorphous lymphoreticular cells. Invasion of pulmonary blood vessels and of bronchi and bronchioles was striking. The lesions closely resembled those of lymphomatoid granulomatosis, a rare human disease of unknown cause.     

Lungworm: (Dictyocaulus arnfieldi) infection in donkeys.

The clinical, parasitological and pathological findings in a group of six donkeys naturally infected with D arnfieldi larvae are described. One animal had to be sacrificed at an early date because it developed pneumonia. The remaining five were unthrifty, showed mild clinical respiratory signs and had heavy strongyle infections. They had varying numbers of adult worms in the airways of the lungs and eggs were found coiled up in the smaller bronchi where they had apparently lead to an obstruction to airflow in that segment. The most striking gross pathological changes were circular discrete areas of over-inflation surrounding such bronchi. Histologically the infected bronchi exhibited a marked bronchiolitis with goblet cell hyperplasia and a mainly lymphoid inflammatory infiltrate. These areas also showed a localised bronchiolitus and overinflated alveolar tissue although true emphysema was not present. It is postulated that the parasite is well-adapted to its host and is able to survive for long periods within the lung without causing a debilitating amount of damage to the host. The immunological aspects of the infection are discussed briefly.     

Feline respiratory disease of multiple aetiology

A number of cats in an experimental colony showed signs of respiratory disease. One 4-month-old animal died after showing dyspnoea and was necropsied approximately 12 hours after death. Pale grey consolidation of the ventral two-thirds of both lungs was observed. Within the consolidated areas there were grey foci ranging from 1 mm to 2 cm in diameter. There was a purulent exudate in the trachea and primary bronchi, and the bronchial lymph nodes were enlarged. Microbiological findings are discussed.     

犬肾动脉、脾动脉分支及其节段性分布

采用动脉铸型和大体解剖学方法观察了犬肾动脉 38例 ,脾动脉 30例。结果表明 :(1)犬肾动脉入肾前分为背干和腹干 ,由它们发出 2～ 6支肾段动脉 ,其分布区即为同名肾段。 (2 )犬肾段动脉有 5种分支类型 ,变异较大 ,但具有高度的对称性。 (3)犬脾动脉的分支均为双分支型 ,即分为脾上叶动脉和脾下叶动脉 ,将犬的脾脏分为 4个脾段 ,每 1个脾段由同名脾段动脉供应血液。 (4 ) 2 5例各脾段动脉之间无吻合支存在 ,称为“无血管区”;5例存在着少量吻合支 ,可称为“少血管区”。     

An Investigation of Ovine Pneumonia in Four Herds from Central Norway: II. Relation Between Pathomorphology and Presence of Micro-Organisms

Sheep lungs obtained at slaughter from 4 herds from Central Norway were subjected to a macroscopical examination. Gross pulmonary findings included normal lungs, fibrous pleurisy, verminous nodules, atelectasis and consolidations of lobular and lobar extensions. A selection of lungs representing the various gross findings was subjected to microbiological and histological examinations. Pleurisy was associated wtih pneumonic consolidations and extension of lesions. Verminous nodules indicative of Muellerius spp. migrations occurred irrespective of gross pulmonary lesions or microbiological findings. A subacute or chronic pneumonia of a mixed proliferative exudative type was demonstrated in consolidated tissue. An association was found between the isolation of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae and the presence of pneumonic lesions and between the number of organisms and extension of lesions. Histological findings highly indicative of this organism were proliferative changes in the bronchiolar and bronchial epithelium and intrapulmonary lymphoid tissue. The intensity of these changes was correlated to the number of mycoplasma organisms present. Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae is suggested to be of primary etiological significance regarding subacute or chronic pneumonia in lambs at slaughter.     

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BRONCHIECTASIS IN 12 DOGS

Bronchiectasis is an irreversible dilatation of the bronchi resulting from chronic airway inflammation. In people, computed tomography (CT) has been described as the noninvasive gold standard for diagnosing bronchiectasis. In dogs, normal CT bronchoarterial ratios have been described as <2.0. The purpose of this retrospective study was to describe quantitative and qualitative CT characteristics of bronchiectasis in a cohort of dogs with confirmed disease. Inclusion criteria for the study were thoracic radiography, thoracic CT, and a diagnosis of bronchiectasis based on bronchoscopy and/or histopathology. For each included dog, a single observer measured CT bronchoarterial ratios at 6 lobar locations. Qualitative thoracic radiography and CT characteristics were recorded by consensus opinion of two board‐certified veterinary radiologists. Twelve dogs met inclusion criteria. The mean bronchoarterial ratio from 28 bronchiectatic lung lobes was 2.71 ± 0.80 (range 1.4 to 4.33), and 23/28 measurements were >2.0. Averaged bronchoarterial ratios from bronchiectatic lung lobes were significantly larger (P < 0.01) than averaged ratios from nonbronchiectatic lung lobes. Qualitative CT characteristics of bronchiectasis included lack of peripheral airway tapering (12/12), lobar consolidation (11/12), bronchial wall thickening (7/12), and bronchial lumen occlusion (4/12). Radiographs detected lack of airway tapering in 7/12 dogs. In conclusion, the most common CT characteristics of bronchiectasis were dilatation, a lack of peripheral airway tapering, and lobar consolidation. Lack of peripheral airway tapering was not visible in thoracic radiographs for some dogs. For some affected dogs, bronchoarterial ratios were less than published normal values.     

一例体细胞克隆黄牛肺脏的组织结构观察

作者应用石蜡切片及HE染色技术对体细胞克隆黄牛的肺脏及其细胞类型和形态进行了详细的观察。结果表明,光镜下,该体细胞克隆黄牛肺脏的组织结构与自然繁殖的黄牛肺脏的组织结构基本一致,包括支气管、细支气管、终末细支气管、呼吸性细支气管、肺泡管、肺泡囊及肺泡等结构,但体细胞克隆黄牛的细支气管管壁内的皱壁消失,其黏膜以单层立方上皮为主;肺泡处于半充容状态,肺泡腔狭小,肺泡膈较厚,其中含有较多胶原纤维和弹性纤维。肺泡壁的细胞结构不清,肺泡腔内有内容物,可能是发生病变引起。