Breeding potato cultivars with tubers resistant toPhytophthora infestans

Summary Available information has been reviewed on tuber resistance toP. infestans, its inheritance and breeding procedures used to obtain potato cultivars superior in this character. P. infestans is worldwide the most destructive potato pathogen. Tuber resistance is an essential component of potato resistance as this pathogen is often responsible for tuber rot in storage, and infected tubers of susceptible cultivars provide an important way for its overwintering. In Europe many cultivars and advanced breeders selections have been obtained with tuber resistance toP. infestans, but in the last decades no progress is noted in the mean level of this resistance in cultivars. The expression of tuber resistance depends to a large extent on testing conditions and therefore it can be difficult to evaluate. Consequently making progress in breeding is not easy, and also cultivar assessment data from various countries sometimes differ considerably. It is concluded from published data that it should be easier to make progress in breeding potato cultivars with resistant tubers if more attention is paid to combining the various types of resistance which are already known, and if the genetic determination of durable resistance toP. infestans is better understood. Professor Dr. K.M. Świeżyński passed away on 27th July 2000     

Susceptibility toPhytophthora infestans of field-and glass-house-grown potato tubers

Summary Tests for resistance toPhytophthora infestans were done twice in each of 2 years on field- and glasshouse-grown tubers of ten cultivars. The cultivar rankings, were almost identical for the means of the four glasshouse tests and the means of the four field tests. However, for the field tests but not for the glasshouse tests there were cultivar x harvest date and cultivar x year interactions. It is concluded that resistance can be assessed on glasshouse-grown tubers and that such assessments should prove more consistent over years than those done on field-grown tubers. R.L. Wastie died 16.1.96     

Defence reactions in two potato cultivars following infection with two races ofPhytophthora infestans

Summary The kinetics of accumulation of chitinases, glucanases and phytoalexins were studied in two potato cultivars, differing in their degrees of vertical and horizontal resistance, when infected with two races ofPhytophthora infestans. Tuber disks of cvs Kennebec (susceptible, low horizontal resistance) and Huinkul (tolerant, high horizontal resistance) were infected with either race “0” (avirulent) or “C” (complex, race 1.3.5.7.11) ofPhytophthora infestans. Extracts of tuber tissue (0–7 days) from cv. Kennebec infected with race “0” showed a strong increase in phytoalexin production and in chitinase and glucanase activities when compared with those infected with race “C”. These results indicate that race “C” is able to block defensive reactions. No significant differences were observed in cv. Huinkul infected with both races. The contribution of these reactions to horizontal resistance is unknown, and our results would not support a conclusive role for them in the interaction.     

Indications of soil borne inoculum ofPhytophthora infestans

Summary In this paper we present observations made during three years in a potato field in Sweden that indicated the presence of soil borne inoculum ofPhytophthora infestans. In 1994, a fungicide trial against late blight was left in the field with various degrees of late blight infection. In 1995, cereals was grown in the field. In 1996, certified potato seed tubers were planted and blight appeared early in the season in a pattern corresponding to the heavily infected areas in 1994. No volunteer potato plants were found in 1995 or 1996. Both mating types A1 and A2 were isolated in 1996 and 1997 and oospores were found in leaves, stems as well as in stolons.     

Reaction toPhytophthora infestans of potato genotypes with race-specific resistance

Summary Phytophthora infestans isolates collected in Poland in 1987–1995 were evaluated on detached leaflets of a differential series consisting of potato genotypes possessing resistance genes R1–R11. On the same differentials was evaluated over three years a highly virulentP. infestans isolate MP 245. Isolate MP 245 and those from natural populations ofP. infestans were seldom or inconsistently pathogenic to R5, R8 and R9. When leaflets of the differentials were infected with MP 245 the lesions were often small and sporulation weak. A statistically significant interaction was found between years and pathogenicity of MP 245 to individual differentials. Attempts to train the isolate MP 245 for pathogenicity to R9 were unsuccessful. The variation in specific resistance of potato genotypes may complicate the evaluation of their resistance toP. infestans, as well as the evaluation of the virulence spectrum of natural fungus populations. This variation may be due to changes in specific pathogenicity of the fungus or in specific resistance of the potato. Some differentials have a possibly useful resistance toP. infestans.     

The return ofPhytophthora infestans, a potato pathogen that just won't quit

Summary Since the early 1980s and continuing through the end of the 20^th century, potato late blight caused byPhytophthora infestans has become noticeably more problematic throughout the world. Exotic strains of the pathogen are largely responsible for the increased problems. The new strains were initially detected in Europe, but subsequently they have been detected in Asia, the Middle East, South America and North America. Populations in the Middle East and South America may represent secondary migrations from Europe. Several independent migrations have occurred such that migrant populations in North America are very different from those in Europe. Also, population structures ofP. infestans are different in different worldwide locations. In some locations the migrant strains are resistant to metalaxyl, but in other locations either migrant or indigenous strains may be resistant. In most locations, the migrant strains are more aggressive than the previous indigenous strains.     

Production of phytoalexins, glycoalkaloids and phenolics in leaves and tubers of potato cultivars with different degrees of field resistance after infection withPhytophthora infestans

Summary The kinetics of accumulation of phytoalexins, glycoalkaloids and phenolics was studied in two potato cultivars differing in their degrees of field resistance when infected withPhytophthora infestans. Tuber slices and leaves of cvs Pampeana INTA (high degree of field resistance, free of R genes) and Bintje (susceptible) were infected with race C (complex race 1, 3, 5, 7, 11) ofPhytophthora infestans. Phytoalexins and phenolics accumulated in tuber and leaf tissues which had been inoculated. The levels of these compounds in the susceptible cv. Bintje were relatively low and similar to those found before inoculation. Leaves of cv. Pampeana INTA had a very high glycoalkaloid content, suggesting that glycoalkaloids may play a role in protection of leaves against the fungus. However, we could find no correlation between resistance and glycoalkaloid content of tubers. Our results suggest a major role of phytoalexins, phenolics and glycoalkaloids in the complex mechanisms of field resistance.     

Changes in race structure of Canadian populations ofPhytophthora infestans based on specific virulence to selected potato clones

Summary A collection of 80 isolates ofPhytophthora infestans, representing multilocus genotypes of the pathogen found in Canada from 1994 to 1996, was screened on a series of nine differential potato host cultivars to determine the physiological race of the isolates. A total of 28 pathotypes were found among the 11 genotypes present in the collection. There was a significant increase in the complexity of pathotypes from 1994 to 1996 which reflected the displacement of the US-1 genotype (mean of 2.2 host differentials infected) by the US-8 genotype (mean of 8.1 host differentials infected). Eighteen of the US-8 isolates could overcome all nine of the resistance genes tested. Virulence genes which overcame host resistance conferred by R8 were the rarest in the populations studied. The predominance of complex populations ofP. infestans in Canada implies that the introduction of cultivars with specific R genes for resistance would be an ineffective control measure. AAFC Contribution No. 901     

Reduced fungicide inputs to controlPhytophthora infestans in potato cultivars with high levels of polygenic resistance

Summary Final disease ratings, apparent infection rates and areas under disease progress curves were used to calculate lower fungicide rates for potato cultivars with high levels of polygenic resistance toPhytophthora infestans. Areas under disease progress curves offered more reliable indications than final disease ratings or apparent infection rates. Control of epidemic development was achieved using 20–80% of the recommended application rates of mancozeb on plots of cvs Brodick. Cara and Torridon compared with full application rates on cv. Maris Piper.     

Variation in tuber pathogenicity ofPhytophthora infestans in the Netherlands

Summary Variation in aggressiveness to tubers among isolates ofPhytophthora infestans sampled from three potato growing regions in the Netherlands was compared. Variation in the ability to infect tubers of cv. Bintje was found between isolates of each of the three regional populations. The most aggressive isolate of the old population matched the average level of the new population in its ability to infect tubers. As a consequence, the commonly used reference isolate VK 6C can no longer be considered to be representative of the present population ofP. infestans. Therefore it is recommended that testing tuber resistance for the official list of potato cultivars with this isolate should be discontinued. Tuber infection and subsequent spread of the fungus in the tuber tissues were not found to be correlated. The components of tuber pathogenicity studied were not correlated to pathogenicity factors in the foliage, as measured under growth chamber conditions.     

Production of above-ground seed tubers on stem cuttings from eight potato cultivars

Summary The formation of above-ground tubers on stem cuttings of eight potato cultivars was studied over three seasons. To promote tuber formation in the leaf axils, stems grown from single node cuttings were exposed to short day conditions. Tuber formation underground was reduced by covering the soil with a plastic sheet and by using single node cuttings planted with the leaf axils several centimetres above the soil surface. With all cultivars except Alpha, which produced mis-shapen tubers in all experiments, an average of 11 (maximum 40) tubers per cutting were harvested. Significant cultivar × year interactions were observed.     

Antifungal activity toPhytophthora infestans of sesquiterpenoids from infected potato tubers

Summary The sesquiterpenes 2-(1',2'-dihydroxy-1'-methylethyl)-6,10-dimethyl-spiro-[4,5]dec-6-en-8-on (1) and its 2'-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (2) were isolated from the stress zones of potato tubers infected withPhoma foveata andFusarium spp., and rishitin and solavetivone from tuber slices inoculated withErwinia carotovora. The influence of these compounds, and of the naturally occurring plant sesquiterpenoids abscisic acid, cedrol and farnesol, on the mycelial growth ofPhytophthora infestans were tested on agar plates using a defined medium. All sesquiterpenoids suppressed the growth of the pathogen, except for1 and its glucoside2 which induced a slight, however significant, growth stimulation. Compounds1 and2 could not be isolated fromE. carotovora orP. infestans-inoculated tuber tissue.     

Characterization of pectic substances from two potato cultivars with different sensitivities to prewarming

Summary Potato cultivars Chieftain and Kennebec were prewarmed at 70°C for 15 min. prior to heating at 100°C for 18 min. in a water bath. Chieftain exhibited a large increase in fracturability upon treatment while Kennebec showed a smaller increase. Pectic substances of the two cultivars were sequentially extracted in water, sodium hexametaphosphate (0.5%), hydrochloric acid (0.05M, 50°C), and sodium hydroxide (0.05M, 5°C). The largest fraction isolated from both cultivars consisted of hydroxide-soluble pectic substances, and was followed by the acid-soluble fraction. Chieftain contained significantly greater amounts of the hydroxide-soluble fraction than Kennebec. Ion exchange chromatography revealed that the extracted pectic substances from the two major fractions consisted of a charged pectin chain with attached neutral sugars. Gel filtration chromatography revealed wide molecular size distributions for the isolated pectic substances. Pectic neutral sugar content for the hydroxide-soluble fraction (50% of total pectic substances) was greater for Chieftain than for Kennebec.     

In vitro evaluation of resistance of potato cultivars toPhytophthora infestans

Summary The resistance of ten potato cultivars (Agria, Ajax, Désirée, Liseta, Kennebec, Majestic. Monalisa, Prima, Spunta and Tonda di Berlino) toPhytophthora infestans was analyzed in vitro using 8 fungal strains. An assay based on electrolyte leakage was used for screening leaves and tuber tissues with fungal culture filtrates. With almost all cultivars the resistance of leaves did not correlate with the resistance of tubers. Cv. Ajax appeared the least susceptible in both leaf and tuber tests, while the cv. Prima was the most susceptible in tuber tests.     

Light use efficiencies of potato cultivars with late blight (Phytophthora infestans)

Summary Potato cultivars of different maturity classes and levels of resistance toPhytophthora infestans were grown under several disease intensities in three field trials. Seasonal courses of ground cover by green foliage and final tuber yields were determined. Light use efficiencies (LUE) were calculated from regression analyses of yield on cumulative light interception. Late blight reduced tuber yields by decreasing cumulative light interception without affecting LUE. No differences in LUE between cultivars or cultivar classes were detected. Therefore, the maintenance of green leaf area is important when breeding potatoes for optimal performance in the presence of late blight. The results support the hypothesis that the correlation between lateness and reported resistance of potato cultivars is due to the vigorous foliage growth of late cultivars.     

Response of potato tubers to hypoxia followed by re-aeration

Summary Potato tubers kept under hypoxia (1%) showed improved viability in comparison to anoxia, which was associated with the maintenance of intermediate adenylate energy charge values (A.E.C.=0.6) and stable adenylate pools at 50% of the initial levels. Re-admission of oxygen to the tuber resulted in an almost full recovery of adenylate energy charge and total adenylates after up to 3 days of hypoxic pretreatment. Tubers exhibited a mixed fermentation. The high lactate, ethanol and acetaldehyde levels proved to be non toxic. Ethanol was degraded to acetaldehyde during re-aeration. Posthypoxic lipid peroxidation was indicated by malondialdehyde and ethane formation. Both products occurred with a temporary delay and in lower amounts compared to post-anoxia. Ethylene release was also considerably smaller. Severe hypoxia and posthypoxia postponed tissue death compared to anoxia. Survival was correlated with an improved energy supply which stabilized membranes.     

Assessing potato cultivars in Tunisia for susceptibility to leak caused byPythium aphanidermatum

Summary The susceptibility of 21 potato cultivars to leak (watery wound rot) caused byPythium aphanidermatum was compared. Whole tubers were inoculated after wounding by dipping into a water suspension of 10³ oospores/ml and incubated for 3 days at 25°C. The mean penetration of tissue calculated from the recording of lesion width and depth and the qualitative assessment of rot extension were highly correlated. For 10 of 12 cultivars tested at least twice, consistent reactions were obtained: cvs Korrigane. Superstar, Safrane and Yesmina were moderately susceptible, whereas Atlas, Diamant, Mondial, Obélix, Spunta and Timate were susceptible to highly susceptible. Tubers originated from two locations and/or two cropping seasons: thus, the performance of these cultivars under different production conditions reveals a satisfactory level of agreement with the test. Moreover, ratings assigned are supported by field or store observations.     

Verification of sap flow by heat balance method on three potato cultivars

Summary A heat balance method for measuring sap flow in actively growing plants was tested on three potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars Monona, Norchip and Atlantic. The method is based on applying a known heat source to the stem of an intact plant: by measuring the axial and radial heat dissipation the magnitude of sap flow can be quantified. The technique shows promise as 24 h accumulated sap flow measurements were highly correlated (r²=0.935, n=36) with gravimetric measurements of transpiration and produced an average root mean square error (RMSE) of 20 g d⁻¹. The accuracy of the method improved as daily accumulated flow increased. Under low daily flow rates overall RMSE increased, supporting the need for a heat storage term in the heat balance equation. Short term flow rates were less significantly correlated (r²=0.764, n=1572) and produced an average RMSE of 2.89 g h⁻¹. Identification of these short term flow rates during high flow periods may be difficult. The presence of water potential gradients and the likelihood of re-hydration during high flow events may have also affected the short term performance of the method. At low flow rates, many different errors may be introduced.     

Race diversity and virulence complexity ofPhytophthora infestans in Nepal

Summary A total of 251Phytophthora infestans isolates collected during 1999–2000 potato growing seasons from nine potato growing areas of Nepal were tested for virulence using a set of eleven potato differentials. The virulence test revealed the presence of 30 races with the most frequent being 4.11, 4 and 11. Twenty-nine percent of isolates belonged to simple races having none to one virulence factor, whereas 71% had complex virulence factors governed by 2 to 7 genes. Gleason and Shannon indices of 5.24 and 2.59, respectively, showed a moderate level of diversity in NepaleseP. infestans populations. Shannon indices comparison among regional populations revealed significant differences (t-test, P<0.001) in the diversity. The population from hills were the most diverse followed byterai and the high hill populations. The virulence complexities were minimal in Nepalese populations. The implications of these findings in association with the potato cultivation system in Nepal are discussed.     

US-8 and US-11 genotypes ofPhytophthora infestans from potato and tomato respond differently to commercial fungicides

Isolates ofPhytophthora infestans collected in Canada in 1997 from both potatoes and tomatoes, were tested on potato leaf discs for their response to an equal active ingredient concentration (10 μg a.i./mL) of the following commercial fungicides: Acrobat MZ (Dimethomorph and Mancozeb), Ridomil Gold (metalaxyl-m), Dithane (Mancozeb), Curzate (Cymoxanil), Bravo (Chlorothalonil), and Tattoo C (Propamocarb and Chlorothalonil). Relative percent leaf infection values, estimated on fungicide-treated vs fungicide-free leaf discs, were compared among isolates from the US-8 and US-11 genotypes isolated from the two host plants. Based on an equal concentration of each fungicide’s active ingredients, variations in relative percent leaf infection were recorded between US-8 and US-11 genotypes, and between potato and tomato isolates within each genotype. Bravo and Tattoo C used with similar active ingredients concentrations were the most inhibitory to all groups of isolates. Dithane and Ridomil Gold provided uniform low inhibition againstP. infestans when tested on potato leaf discs. The different behavior ofP. infestans isolates from potato vs tomato suggests that management of late blight in these two important crops must take such differences into consideration. In particular, the nature and concentration of the fungicides to be applied must take into account any information available about genotypes present on each crop.