Analysis of Behaviors Observed During Mechanical Nociceptive Threshold Testing in Donkeys and Horses

The aims of the study were to analyze and compare behaviors in horses and donkeys observed during nociceptive threshold tests with a mechanical stimulus applied to the limb. The purpose was to identify end point behaviors suggesting the animals had perceived the stimulus to be noxious. Six male castrated horses (aged 3–4 years, weighing 415–503 kg) and eight castrated male donkeys (aged 4–9 years, weighing 152.5–170.5 kg) were studied. Video data recorded during mechanical nociceptive threshold test were analyzed by a single observer. Behaviors were classified into short-duration event behaviors and longer duration activity/state behaviors. Frequency of behaviors within a test (event behaviors) and percentage time spent during the test (activity/state behaviors) were calculated. Data were compared between horses and donkeys using Mann–Whitney tests (nonparametric data) or t-test (parametric data). Significance was taken as P < .05. Behaviors during the tests were observed which could indicate the animals perceived the stimulus as noxious. These included flattening ears back against the head, and turning the head (horses) and chewing (donkeys) although these were not consistent across both species. Foot lifts were often preceded by other behaviors which suggests that the foot lift was not purely a reflex withdrawal response. A shift in weight toward the contralateral limb was a consistent prodromal sign for an end point foot lift.     

Evaluation of Plasma Detectable Concentrations of Two Lidocaine Transdermal Formulations and Their Analgesic Effect in the Horse

Transdermal absorption of four lidocaine (L) patches (5%) was compared with the transdermal absorption of L cream (5%) to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of the two formulations applied on the same anatomic region under dressing in eight horses. The animals were also assessed for antinociceptive effect after removal of the patches and cream, using a psychophysical method visual analog scale, by pricking the patient's skin to test the response to pain. Horses were randomly assigned to four treatment groups: in groups I and II, four L patches were applied for a period of 24 hours with and without alcohol precleaning, respectively; in group III, 5% L cream was applied every 2 hours over a 24-hour period on the same anatomic site. Group IV was the control. No clinical side effects were noted with either formulation. L was detectable in plasma 6 to 24 hours after application of the patches, and the highest plasma concentrations were reached between 12 and 18 hours. The use of alcohol to preclean the skin appeared to reduce the transdermal drug absorption over time. After L cream application, the peak plasma drug concentration occurred at 24 hours. Nociception assessment after L patch or L cream application showed a decreased response when the L cream was used. The results of this study showed that there was minimal absorption from the L patches compared with the L cream in horses. Also, the L cream treatment reduced significantly the intensity of nociception quality as measured by the visual analog scale.     

Pharmacokinetics of the Novel Cyclooxygenase 2 Inhibitor Cimicoxib in Donkeys

Cimicoxib is a novel cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor drug approved for use in dogs. Assessing pharmacokinetic profiles in target species is pivotal for extra-label applications. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetic profiles of cimicoxib after intragastric administration in six healthy jennies. Plasma concentrations of cimicoxib were determined by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector. A pilot study was carried out with two animal groups (n = 3) in fasted or fed conditions receiving 2 mg/kg of cimicoxib. Because of the relatively low C_max (0.03 μg/mL) from the pilot study, the dose was increased (5 mg/kg) for the subsequent full-scale crossover study. Single administration of 5 mg/kg did not show any adverse effects. However, the C_max (0.02 μg/mL) and area under the curve (0.14 hour × μg/mL) values obtained after 5 mg/kg administration were not dose dependent compared with those in the 2 mg/kg pilot study. The results from this study could provide basic but essential information for the use of cimicoxib. Further pharmacodynamic studies are required to assess clinical efficacy in donkeys at these low plasma concentrations.     

Effects of Flunixin Meglumine,Firocoxib, and Meloxicam in Equines After Castration

This study is “aimed” to evaluate and compare the efficacy of flunixin meglumine (FM), firocoxib (FX), and meloxicam (MX) after castration of horses. Thirty horses were submitted to open castration and divided into three groups (n = 10) depending on the anti-inflammatory drug administered: group I (GI) (FM, 1.1 mg kg¹, IV, once a day [SID], 5 days); group II (GII) (FX, 0.1 mg kg¹, IV, SID, 5 days), and group III (GIII) (MX, 0.6 mg kg¹, IV, SID, 5 days). Clinical, behavioral, and hematological parameters and the peritoneal fluid (PF) were evaluated before (day [D] 0) and 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 days afterward. In the postoperative, scores of limb rigidity and prepuce edema of animals of GII and GIII were greater than those of GI. Tachycardia was observed in the horses of GII and GIII and hyperthermia in GIII. An increase in the number of leukocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes without exceeding the reference values and hyperfibrinogenemia was observed in the animals of GI (D7), GII (D1-D7), and GIII (D7). There was reduction in serum protein after castration, together with an increase of this in the PF of the animals of the three groups. The PF on D0 was straw yellow and limpid, became reddish and cloudy on D1, and then gradually moved toward its normal color on the ensuing days, but without returning to normal on D7 in any of the groups. The results showed that castration triggers significant clinical and laboratory changes and that FM, FX, and MX are equally effective in controlling pain and inflammation in horses after castration; however, FM was more advantageous.     

Pharmacokinetics of Tramadol and Its Metabolites M1, M2, and M5 in Donkeys after Intravenous and Oral Immediate Release Single-Dose Administration

Tramadol (T) is a centrally acting analgesic structurally related to codeine and morphine. Recently, T has been reported to be metabolized faster to inactive metabolites in goats, dogs, and horses than in cats. Clinical effectiveness of T has been questioned in species that mainly metabolize this molecule to inactive metabolites, suggesting that this drug could be not suitable as effective and safe treatment for pain as in humans. The purpose of the study is to determine the pharmacokinetics of T and its main metabolites in donkeys to evaluate its prospective use in clinical practice. The subjects were 12 male donkeys, 6 to 9 years old and weighing 300 to 380 kg. Each subject received a single dose of 2.5 mg/kg T either orally or intravenously. Plasma T, O-desmethyltramadol (M1), N-desmethyltramadol (M2), and N-,O-didesmethyltramadol (M5) concentrations were evaluated by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Pharmacokinetic parameters in both administrations were calculated according to a non-compartmental model. After intravenous administration, T was detectable up to 10 hours, whereas M1, M2, and M5 were detectable from 15 minutes up to 6 hours. The total amount of M2 was greater than M1, which was greater than M5. The T area under the concentration/time curve (AUC), T_1/2 λz (terminal half-life), and Cl/F (Clearance/F where F is the fraction of the drug absorbed) were 14,522 ± 2,554 h/ng/mL, 1.55 ± 0.74 hours, and 167 ± 22.3 mL/h/kg, respectively. After oral administration, T was detectable up to 8 hours to a lower extent than after the intravenous route. The total amount of M2 was greater than M5, which was greater than M1. The T AUC, T_1/2 λz, and Cl/F were 4,624 ± 2,002 h/ng/mL, 4.22 ± 2.32 hours, and 495 ± 170 mL/h/kg, respectively. The bioavailability of the oral formulation was 11.7 ± 5.1%. In conclusion, despite the effectiveness of intravenous administration of T, oral administration did not reach the minimum plasma concentration of both M1 and parental drug reported in humans as needed to achieve analgesia in donkeys.     

Individual and Diurnal Variations in Rectal Temperature,Respiration, and Heart Rate of Pack Donkeys during the Early Rainy Season

Six Nubian pack donkeys were used to determine variations in rectal temperature (RT), respiratory rate (RR), and heart rate (HR) during the early rainy season. The donkeys exhibited a diurnal range of RT, RR, and HR of 34.7 to 38.7°C, 15 to 75 breaths/minute, and 36 to 72 beats/minute, respectively, with peak mean values at 2:00 pm and a trough shortly after sunrise (7:00 am). The amplitude of the diurnal rhythm of RT and RR was not correlated with the diurnal range of ambient temperature (AT) and relative humidity (RH). Although mean diurnal RTs were positively correlated with corresponding ATs, mean daily RTs were not significantly correlated with corresponding ATs. Diurnal and daily variations in RT of donkeys, like those of other ungulates, therefore, appear to reflect an endogenous rhythm, which may be largely independent of fluctuations in environmental thermal load. The mean maximum AT and RH, and the corresponding RR and HR values, fell above the normal range for donkeys in the tropics. The season was meteorologically stressful to the donkeys, imposing significant changes in the RT, RR, and HR parameters requiring responses to maintain homeostasis. The values of the amplitude in RT, RR, and HR obtained in individual donkeys were higher than the corresponding values obtained during the hourly recordings, indicating that it is more important to evaluate the individual's vital parameters in reaching conclusion of fitness for work in donkeys. The hourly recordings have shown the hours of the day (11:00 am to 4:00 pm) that are potentially meteorologically stressful for donkeys to be used for packing during the season.     

地西泮联合利多卡因对家兔麻醉效果的初步研究

为探讨地西泮联合利多卡因对于实验兔血管外科手术的全身麻醉效果,选取试验兔48只,随机分为A、B、C、D四组.A组和B组采用戊巴比妥钠麻醉,C组和D组采用地西泮与利多卡因的复合麻醉,分别观察麻醉起效时间、维持时间、全麻手术过程中动物体温、呼吸频率、血压、心率及麻醉死亡率;B组和D组麻醉后分别给以肾上腺素、普萘洛尔、酚妥拉...     

Ultrasound-Guided Transversus Abdominis Plane Block in Shetland Ponies: A Description of a Three-Point Injection Technique and Evaluation of Potential Analgesic Effects

Colic surgery is one of the most painful procedures carried out in horses. Common strategies to alleviate immediate postsurgical abdominal pain include the administration of potent systemic analgesics; however, these may cause unwanted adverse effects such as cardiovascular depression, ileus, and ataxia. The administration of local anesthetics at the incision site in form of an ultrasound-guided subcostal transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block may therefore be preferred to provide adequate analgesia without significant side effects. To date, no technique for a TAP block in horses undergoing median celiotomy has been described. The objective of the study was to develop a TAP block technique, which will lead to the desensitization of the ventrolateral abdominal wall and adjacent skin area of experimental Shetland Ponies using bupivacaine 0.125%. This is a prospective, blinded, self-controlled trial. A cadaver study was performed to determine the ideal injection points and the volume required to stain the nerves responsible for the sensation of the ventrolateral abdominal wall and skin in Shetland pony cadavers (i.e., T9–L 2). Subsequently, using the ideal injectate volume and the landmarks obtained in the first phase of the study, six Shetland ponies received a bilateral TAP injection, either with a local anesthetic solution (bupivacaine 0.125%) or with saline in a randomized, crossover, blinded fashion. Effectiveness was determined over a 4 hour postinjection time, by using a pinprick technique. Significant differences were found to the responses of the pinprick evaluation between the bupivacaine- and saline-treated sides after 30 minutes of TAP block injection. Reported “learned behavior” could have affected the results of the pinprick testing. The TAP block technique reported in this study using bupivacaine 0.125% appeared effective in desensitizing the lower abdomen of ponies for up to 2 hours. Further research is required to apply this technique in horses undergoing celiotomy. Potentially larger volumes and/or higher concentrations of bupivacaine may be necessary to provide longer duration of action of the block.     

Effect of the Depth of Insertion of the Thermometer on the Rectal Temperature of Donkeys During the Hot-Dry Season in a Tropical Savannah

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of the depth of insertion and environmental parameters on the rectal temperature (RT) in donkeys during the hot-dry season in a tropical savannah zone of Nigeria. The experimental subjects were comprised of thirty donkeys divided into three groups based on age: group I, 10 foals (40.67 ± 2.20 kg; 1.50 ± 0.02 months); group II, 10 yearlings (91.53 ± 0.54 kg; 1.51 ± 0.01 years); and group III, 10 adults (140 ± 0.71 kg; 8.03 ± 0.06 years). Each group was divided into 5 male and 5 female donkeys. Measurements of the RT were recorded with a digital thermometer probe (model HI935007, Hanna Instruments), which was inserted into the rectum at varying depths of 3.5, 7, 10.5, and 14 cm in the same animal in each group. There was a gradual increase in the RT in donkeys as the depth of insertion was increased from 3.5 cm (36.60°C) to 14 cm (38.40°C). Data obtained from the study were subjected to repeated-measures analysis of variance, followed by Tukey's post-hoc test to compare mean values between different depths of RT measurements. Overall, there was a variation in the RT by the depth of insertion with the shallow depth of 3.5 cm having a lower RT than the depths of 7, 10.5, and 14 cm. The variation of the RT observed in donkeys showed that there is need to standardize the probe-insertion depth in veterinary clinical practice for accurate measurement of the RT in donkeys in the Northern Guinea savannah zone of Nigeria.     

Analgesic and gastrointestinal effects of epidural morphine in horses after laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy under general anesthesia

ObjectiveTo evaluate the hypothesis that epidural morphine (0.1 mg kg^?1) decreases pain in horses after laparoscopic surgery without adversely affecting gastrointestinal (GI) motility.Study designRandomized clinical trial.AnimalsEighteen horses undergoing laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy under general anesthesia.MethodsHorses were randomly assigned to receive either epidural morphine (0.1 mg kg^?1) or no epidural before the start of surgery. Pain behaviors were assessed during the first two post-operative days using a numerical rating scale. Barium-filled spheres were administered through a nasogastric tube before anesthesia. GI motility was assessed by recording manure production, by quantitating the spheres in the manure, and by abdominal auscultation of intestinal sounds. Heart rates and cortisol concentrations were also measured during the post-operative period.ResultsPain scores increased for 12 hours after surgery in the control group and were significantly higher than in the morphine group for the first 6 hours. Pain scores remained unaltered in the morphine group throughout the observation period. Heart rate and plasma cortisol concentrations did not differ between groups or with time. No signs of colic were observed in any horse.Conclusion and clinical relevanceEpidural morphine (0.1 mg kg^?1) did not adversely affect GI motility in horses after laparoscopic surgery under general anesthesia.     

Serum Concentrations of Lidocaine and Its Metabolites MEGX and GX During and After Prolonged Intravenous Infusion of Lidocaine in Horses after Colic Surgery

Lidocaine is the most commonly used prokinetic after gastrointestinal surgery in horses. Cardiovascular status, hepatic function, and duration of therapy are the primary determinants of lidocaine metabolism, and these factors could affect equine patients after colic surgery. This study examined the systemic concentrations of lidocaine and its active metabolites monoethylglycinexylidide (MEGX) and glycinexylidide (GX), in horses that had undergone colic surgery and subsequently received prolonged postoperative lidocaine infusions. The mean lidocaine concentration increased over the course of treatment but did not exceed the therapeutic range. Concentrations of MEGX and GX increased progressively, and concentrations exceeding 1,000 ng/ml were observed frequently after 72 hours of infusion. None of the horses in the study developed severe signs of toxicity; however, the progressively increasing concentrations of lidocaine, MEGX, and GX are cause for concern in clinically ill patients receiving prolonged lidocaine therapy. The potential contribution of MEGX and GX should be considered when evaluating adverse reactions to prolonged lidocaine infusions.     

埃普利诺菌素注射剂对肉牛血虱的驱杀试验

血虱是一种肉牛常见的外寄生虫 ,严重危害着养牛业。文章进行了新型阿维菌素类药物 -埃普利诺菌素注射液对自然感染的肉牛血虱的驱杀试验。结果表明 ,埃普利诺菌素注射液以 0 .2 mg/ kg的剂量进行皮下注射安全有效 :能在 7d内能将牛血虱完全杀灭 ,并能在 42 d内有效防止再感染     

灌胃和腹腔注射鼠李糖乳杆菌对妊娠期小鼠粪便菌群多样性的影响

【目的】研究灌胃和腹腔注射鼠李糖乳杆菌(Lactobacillus rhamnosus,LGG)对妊娠期小鼠粪便菌群多样性的影响,为动物妊娠期生理及肠道健康提供理论依据。【方法】选择体重相近(23.33 g±1.55 g)、配种日期相同的SPF级妊娠昆明小鼠45只,随机分为3组,分别为对照组、试验Ⅰ组和试验Ⅱ组,每组15只。在相同饲养管理和饲粮营养水平下,从妊娠的第2天开始,对照组饲喂基础饲粮;试验Ⅰ组腹腔注射0.5 mL含有0.125 g LGG的灭菌生理盐水(连续14 d);试验Ⅱ组灌胃0.5 mL含有0.125 g LGG的灭菌生理盐水(连续18 d),试验期21 d。所有小鼠于临产前1 d解剖,采集大肠粪便样品,提取各组粪便样本的基因组DNA,PCR扩增后进行文库构建,对合格文库应用NovaSeq 6000测序平台进行测序,采用Uparse软件(v 7.0.1001)以97%的一致性将序列聚类成为操作分类单元(OTUs)并筛选代表序列。采用Mothur方法与SILVA 132的SSUrRNA数据库进行物种注释分析,并统计门、科和属水平上的群落组成。使用QIQME 1.7.0软件...     

Effect of intraperitoneal or incisional bupivacaine on pain and the analgesic requirement after ovariohysterectomy in dogs

ObjectiveTo compare the effect of intraperitoneal (IP) or incisional (INC) bupivacaine on pain and the analgesic requirement after ovariohysterectomy in dogs.Study designProspective, randomized clinical study.AnimalsThirty female dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy (OHE).MethodsDogs admitted for elective OHE were anesthetized with acepromazine, butorphanol, thiopental and halothane. Animals were randomly assigned to one of three groups (n = 10 per group). The treatments consisted of preincisional infiltration with saline solution (NaCl 0.9%) or bupivacaine with epinephrine and/or IP administration of the same solutions, as follows: INC and IP 0.9% NaCl (control group); INC 0.9% NaCl and IP bupivacaine (5 mg kg^?1, IP group); INC bupivacaine (1 mg kg^?1) and IP 0.9% NaCl (INC group). Postoperative pain was evaluated by a blinded observer for 24 hours after extubation by means of a visual analog scale (VAS) and a numeric rating scale (NRS). Rescue analgesia (morphine, 0.5 mg kg^?1, IM) was administered if the VAS was >5/10 or the NRS >10/29.ResultsAt 1 hour after anesthesia, VAS pain scores were [medians (interquartile range)]: 6.4 (3.1–7.9), 0.3 (0.0–2.6) and 0.0 (0.0–7.0) in control, IP and INC groups, respectively. VAS pain scores were lower in the IP compared to the control group. Over the first 24 hours, rescue analgesia was administered to 7/10, 5/10 and 3/10 dogs of the control, INC and IP groups, respectively. Total number of dogs given rescue analgesia over the first 24 hours did not differ significantly among groups.Conclusions and clinical relevanceIntraperitoneal bupivacaine resulted in lower pain scores during the first hour of the postoperative period and there was a trend towards a decreased need for rescue analgesia after OHE in dogs.     

复方白毛藤注射剂对小鼠的免疫调节作用

为研究复方白毛藤注射剂对小鼠免疫调节作用 ,采用常规免疫学方法进行了 con A诱导的小鼠淋巴细胞转化增殖试验 ,硝基氟苯诱导迟发型变态反应试验 ,腹腔巨噬细胞吞噬功能试验及小鼠碳粒廓清试验。结果表明 :该制剂中 ,高剂量组均具有明显增强 con A诱导的小鼠脾淋巴细胞增殖能力 ,能显著增强硝基氟苯诱导的小鼠迟发型变态反应 ,明显增强小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞吞噬鸡红细胞能力及小鼠碳粒廓清能力。与对照组相比差异极显著 (P <0 .0 1 ) ,中、高剂量组差异不显著 (P >0 .0 5)。