Evolution and Development of a Code for Private Native Forestry in New South Wales,Australia

Until recently the focus of forestry regulations in New South Wales (NSW) was on public rather than private lands. This paper describes the process of developing legislation to control where and how private native forestry takes place. To date, the lead agency in attempting to formulate a clear policy has been the Department of Natural Resources. First, through a series of committee meetings of representatives of key stakeholder groups, a draft private native forestry code was devised and was released for public comment. After a period of intense negative reaction from both those in favour of continuing timber production in native forests and those in favour of requiring that private lands be managed as nature reserves, the draft code was withdrawn and a government-appointed committee then began again the process of drawing up a code acceptable to most stakeholders.     

Attitudes Towards Biodiversity Conservation of Forests Dwellers and Encroachers: A Case Study of Assam in Northeast India

By enacting the Forest Rights Act 2006, the Government of India aimed to protect the rights of the forest dwellers; at the same time, it sought to involve the forest dwellers in protecting the forests. But the forest dwellers are critical of this Act, on the ground that it does not consider tribal customary laws, which are essential to protect both the forests and the rights of the forest dwellers. This paper examines the perceptions and attitudes of the dwellers of village forest and encroachers towards biodiversity conservation under the rights enshrined in the Forest Rights Act 2006. A survey was conducted in190 households in four village forests and two encroached villages under reserved forests of Sonitpur and Golaghat districts of Assam in Northeast India. The majority of the respondents were found to have positive attitudes towards environmental issues in general and protection of biodiversity loss in particular. Village-type, residents’ occupation, caste, source of fuel for cooking, educational qualifications and size of land holding were found to be significantly associated with attitudes towards biodiversity conservation. It is concluded that conducting an environmental education program and rights-holders’ monitoring system on the impact of their use of forest resources will support conservation of biodiversity.     

Social and ecological issues for private native forestry in north-eastern New South Wales,Australia

Forests in north-eastern New South Wales have often been the focus of controversy. The tension between production and preservation continues and hampers current negotiations for a code of practice for private native forestry. The structure of many private forests reflects past mismanagement, and silvicultural intervention would benefit both conservation and production objectives, but such intervention is rarely financially viable. This paper sets out the economic and ecological basis for private native forestry. Both the timber industry and nature-based tourism are major contributors to the local economy, and both rely in part on private native forests. Draft regulations currently under negotiation do not offer incentives for improved private forest management.

Private Native Forestry in NSW: Environmentally Benign,Economically Important but Silviculturally Challenged?

With large areas of public native forests now converted into National Parks and unavailable for timber harvest, private native forests (PNF) in New South Wales (NSW) are becoming increasingly important in providing timber for the wood processing industry. At the same time, there is increasing interest in the role that these private forests play in providing and maintaining habitat for wildlife. Historically, timber production from these forests has been opportunistic, with little or no silviculture to maintain wood production potential. Market circumstances and policy settings have not favoured sound silvicultural practice, generating an exploitative and short-term view of the timber resource to maximise short-term returns. This has occurred at a time when these forests are an important and increasing source of log supply to industry. This paper discusses payment of biodiversity credits (incentives) to improve both environmental management and timber production outcomes, and examines the findings of some recent studies on the ‘sustainability’ of PNF. Willingness-to-pay (WTP) and willingness-to-supply studies reveal a disparity between the demand and supply prices for biodiversity and habitat ‘services’ in many cases. Recent ‘sustainability’ studies indicate forestry operations are relatively benign in their impacts on biodiversity, compared to other land uses. However, in the absence of increased financial returns from PNF and in the face of increased public demand for greater environmental outcomes, there seems little alternative to meeting the competing demands of biodiversity and timber production than to implement a system of incentive payments which reward sound private forest management for a multiplicity of objectives.

Tree Species Diversity in Community Managed and National Park Forests in the Mid-Hills of Central Nepal

Community forestry is expanding in developing countries but there is limited knowledge of, and contradictory findings about, its contribution to biodiversity conservation. This study aims at increasing the understanding of tree species diversity in community forests compared to National Parks. A forest inventory was carried out in four community forests and one National Park in the mid-hills of central Nepal. The study found that community forestry has contributed to high tree species diversity where forest management communities have interests in multiple species, but most community forests are moving toward promoting limited timber yielding species that have high economic value. Linking community forestry with economic incentives for conserving multiple tree species could therefore be a strategy to conserve biodiversity outside of protected areas.     

Private native forest policies in New South Wales,Queensland, Victoria and Tasmania

Private native forests in Australia perform a dual production and conservation role, providing an important source of timber, and complementing formal conservation reserves. A comparison of policies for private native forests in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Tasmania illustrates the scope for timber harvesting, the provision for environmental values, and initiatives for responsible and sustainable forest management. The sustainable management of Australia’s forests requires initiatives by both government and landowners to accommodate changes in community attitudes, new management strategies, integrated catchment management principles and both commercial and non-commercial opportunities for forest use. Of all of the Australian states, New South Wales has the most restrictive laws in terms of forest management and harvesting. Queensland and Victorian legislation have a more commercial focus, while Tasmania has a balance of both environmental and commercial objectives. The duty of care for private native forests is a responsibility that falls to the landholder, and while this should be enforced by legislation, the private provision of community benefits requires both recognition and reward. The presence or absence of incentives potentially determines the effectiveness of forest codes of practice.     

Peoples’ Perception Towards Urban Forestry and Institutional Involvement in Metropolitan Cities: A Survey of Lalitpur City in Nepal

Universally, trees have been recognized as an important component of urban landscapes for millennia because they provide a wide range of benefits to society. Although the planting of trees has been an integral and important part of human settlements in Nepal, the concept of urban forestry is poorly understood and often neglected. This paper investigates urban peoples?? perceptions towards urban forests as well as the perceived benefits related to the use and existence of urban forests in Lalitpur, Nepal. A survey was conducted among residents and visitors to an urban park. Most respondents held positive attitudes towards urban forests and were aware of the benefits provided. Despite involvement of various agents from both government and non-governmental organizations in promoting urban forests, greenery was declining in the city. The loss and degradation of urban forests adversely affected the ecosystems because the city is suffering from water, air and soil pollution. In recent years, the local government has promoted urban greenery; however, there are no accompanying legislation or regulations governing urban forestry. Therefore, concrete scientific and professional knowledge is required in order to manage the forestry in the city.     

Economic dependence of rural people on homestead forestry in Mymensingh, Bangladesh

Homestead forests contribute substantially to the rural economy of Bangladesh. Rural people depend on trees and plants for their energy usage, housing, food and other forms of subsistence livelihood. In order to identify the potential role of forests on homestead dwellers, an empirical field investigation was conducted in the four Upazilas of Mymensingh district of Bangladesh. It was found that land holdings of the respondents within the four sites are the highest in Mymensingh. The study made an important observation that among all homestead vegetation between 5–6 years old, tree species are generally preferred over plants. This is perhaps due to the efforts of the social forestry extension service to demonstrate that planting trees is an important long-term investment. In all four Upazilas, there was a significant correlation between household annual income and homestead forestry, agriculture and fisheries practice, suggesting that higher income families tend to have larger holdings of homesteads, farms and pond areas. Three Upazilas displayed a strong positive relationship (nearly 45%) between homestead forest areas and annual family income; however, the Fulbaria Upazila showed a very poor relationship (0.2%) in this regard. The results of this study suggest that homestead forests play a positive role in the rural economy, in addition to helping mitigate the increasing problem of deforestation in Bangladesh.     

Skepticism of state action in forest certification and voluntary set-asides: a Swedish example with two environmental offsetting options

Non-industrial private forest owners in Sweden are encouraged to mitigate environmental damages from forestry on their properties under a principle of “freedom with responsibility,” although the level of mitigation is generally left to the owners’ discretion. One voluntary measure private forest owners are encouraged to take is setting aside a part of their productive forests for conservation. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate how non-industrial private forest owner beliefs concerning both their own and the Swedish state’s responsibility for nature protection differ among owners of certified forests, who automatically leave a set-aside, and those who have stayed out of forest certification but have decided to leave a set-aside. Results of a Heckman selection bivariate probit model show that the more a respondent believes the state is responsible for fulfilling environmental goals compared to private forest owners, the less likely it is that an owner of a non-certified forest will leave a set-aside for conservation. Beliefs about responsibility do not, however, differ among owners of certified and non-certified forests. From a policy perspective, Swedish government agencies may have difficulty steering specific measures taken by private forest owners who are interested in conservation but have stayed out of forest certification regimes.     

Private native forestry in new landscapes: challenges and opportunities in New South Wales

Understanding the changes occurring within the forestry sector is complicated by socio-economic and demographic changes within rural communities - sometimes in areas where commercial forestry has a long tradition. These changes in some rural communities, particularly coastal New South Wales, appear significant for forestry because land ownership and management are increasingly disconnected from the traditional agricultural land use. There is an increasing population of landowners in ‘lifestyle’ landscapes who do not appear primarily driven by maximising the profitability of farming. The shift from ‘production’ to ‘lifestyle’ landscapes also reflects a transition in community expectations for forestry - a profound change that is likely to require quite different approaches to management. Landholders may be more likely to be interested in forestry with multiple values, including both timber products and environmental services. Furthermore, well-managed native forests that are integrated into individual properties and wider landscapes, may increase the market value of the property, representing a prudent business investment. This paper presents a method for analysing the relationship between rural land values and the estimated agricultural value of typical farms in a number of localities in New South Wales, as a means of interpreting the underlying social values of landholders. It is argued that such analysis can be helpful in identifying changes in community values as a signal that approaches to private native forestry may also need to change to accommodate the aspirations of ‘lifestyle’ landholders, who may value the aesthetics of native forests more highly than timber production.     

Endangered lowland oak forest steppe remnants keep unique bird species richness in Central Hungary

The biodiversity of natural or semi-natural native,old oak woodlands have high conservation impor-tance,especially in landscapes of monocultural forest plan-tations and arable fields.With a wider variety of microhabi-tats and foraging sources,such old oak forests can provide essential habitat for native forest bird communities.We con-ducted a study using bird point counts to compare the forest bird communities of old pedunculate oak (Quercus robur)remnants with native and non-native plantations in central Hungary in a landscape of mostly arable fields,settlements,and monocultural plantations.Avian surveys were carried out in old oak forest remnants,middle-aged oak,white pop-lar (Populus alba),hybrid poplar (Populus × euramericana),black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia),and pine (Pinus spp.)plantations.Fieldwork has been carried out in nine study sites,where all six habitat types were represented (with a few exceptions),to determine total abundance,species rich-ness,Shannon-Wiener diversity,species evenness,domi-nant and indicator species,and guild abundances.We found that old oak forest remnants were the most diverse habitats among the studied forest types,while hybrid poplar and pine plantations exhibited the lowest avian biodiversity.The avian guilds most sensitive to the loss of old oak forest remnants were ground foragers,bark foragers,cavity-nest-ers,residents,and Mediterranean migratory birds.Native habitats were more diverse than non-native plantations.Our results suggest that it is important to conserve all remaining high biodiversity old oak stands and to avoid clear-cutting of monocultural plantations in favour of practices such as mixed-species plantations,longer rotation lengths,or reten-tion forestry.     

Forest Growth-and-Yield Modelling

Abstract

Examples of effective growth-and-yield model implementation and use are documented throughout the forestry world. However, in the perspective of sustainable forestry, comparing the development of management requirements with growth-and-yield research backgrounds, some doubts arise concerning basic research hypotheses. The conflict between the necessary simplification implied in models development and the essential complex nature of forests plays a key role in the issue. Furthermore, present modelling concepts stem from a traditional framework relying at the fundamental perception level on the enforcement of external regulations on the forest, having some predetermined optimal structure as a goal. If tomorrow's strategic planning places in the forefront of the framework Oldeman's paradox “objectives are best achieved by first forgetting them in favour of forest survival and complexity maintenance,” we will really face quite a sharp concept change. Yet, it is important to clearly focus the role of models as potential adjuncts to the professional judgement and wisdom of foresters given their rational scientific character as learning, communication and screening tools. What is attainable is not the high precision of quantitative predictions, at least as far as complex biological systems such as forests are concerned. Compact representations (e.g., minimal models and “modeles simples”) with few state variables and a biologically-driven content may provide reasonable indications on future states over a wide range of conditions, contributing to operational forest management guidelines within an adaptive framework.     

Policies Affecting Forestry Entrepreneurship

Many demand and supply-side policies impede or foster forestry entrepreneurship. A study was conducted to consolidate existing knowledge on policies influencing forestry entrepreneurship in Finland, Norway, Japan, Australia, the Philippines and the USA, and to draw conclusions on these impeding and fostering factors. From the country studies it was difficult to find common structures on policies affecting forestry entrepreneurship. This is understandable because most policies in forestry are aimed at supporting sustainable forest management, wood production and ecological services of the forests rather than entrepreneurship as such. Despite the high variety of policies applied in the study countries, it can be concluded that strict public control on forests’ use and management potentially impedes forestry entrepreneurship. While these policies assist to correct market failure and to promote sustainability of forest management, they may also result into unnecessary and ineffective regulations that limit the opportunities for forestry entrepreneurship. A common feature promoting the demand for forestry entrepreneurship in some of the countries studied is the strong emphasis on forestry cooperatives, which were important institutions to support small-scale forestry entrepreneurship. In many study countries, different ad hoc programs are implemented to find new economic and entrepreneurial opportunities aside from the current use of wood and forests. Subsidies and tax incentives are commonly applied to reduce risks from making forestry investments or otherwise increase the economic return from timber production.     

美国私有林管理及其对广东民营林业发展的启示

美国政府十分重视私有林的发展，通过立法明确私有林产权、规范私有林主行为，实行积极的经济和科技扶持政策，使私有林业成为美国的重要产业之一。美国私有林已建立了一整套完善的管理制度，积累了许多成功的经验，为广东省民营林业的发展提供了有益的启示。     

人工林生物多样性研究的现状及展望

叙述了人工林生物多样性的研究现状,分析了影响人工林生物多样性的因素,并提出了人工林生物多样性的评价标准、提高途径及未来的研究方向.     

Financing Methods for Small-Scale Hardwood Plantations in Queensland, Australia

Under Vision 2020, a target was set in 1997 for trebling the forestry plantation area in Australia by the year 2020. Government subsidies and extension for plantation establishment have largely disappeared, hence forestry expansion is highly dependent on access to private finance. Plantation expansions throughout Australia has occurred predominantly through managed investment schemes, and to a lesser extent by joint venture schemes between landholders and government or private enterprise. Relatively small-scale hardwood plantations have been established, designed to replace the hardwood timber from the native forests that will be protected from further logging after 2024 under the Regional Forestry Agreements. Views on financing methods for forestry expansion in Queensland were investigated through by an email survey of 12 forestry and finance professionals, followed by in-depth personal interviews of the same group of key informants. Issues identified include lack of transparent information, inequitable taxation system between Managed Investment Scheme (MIS) companies and small-scale forest owners, need for further R&D on all aspects of the industry, and design of a strategic alliance model for forestry investors. Participants took the view that adoption of a strategic alliance model would encourage further investment in small-scale forestry and argued that this model could protect the interests of all the stakeholders through reducing investment risk and creating competitive advantage. The potential introduction of a carbon trading scheme also attracted interest from investors, who look for recognisable structures that may alleviate the risk of investing in an industry with which they are unfamiliar. The participants considered that further R&D should be the main focus for government participation in small-scale forestry, although recognizing current difficulties with information sharing.     

Western Oregon forest landowner beliefs about the outcomes of mandatory riparian buffer regulations

Research about nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners’ perspectives on voluntary conservation-based programs continues to proliferate. However, there is a gap in understanding NIPF landowner perspectives about the social and ecological outcomes of mandatory conservation-based regulations. We sent questionnaires to Oregon NIPF landowners to understand their beliefs about potential outcomes of proposed state regulations that strengthen mandatory riparian buffer habitat protection requirements. Factor analysis and multiple regression techniques revealed the most important variables that influence those beliefs. Overall, respondents believed that the socioeconomic outcomes were negative and the ecological outcomes were neutral or slightly positive. Respondents with more conservative political attitudes who owned larger properties were more likely to believe that the outcomes would be negative. As the importance of maintaining property for future generations and increasing timber productivity increased, respondents believed the potential outcomes would be increasingly negative. As the importance of improving water quality, increasing carbon storage, and improving recreational use on the property increased, respondents believed that the outcomes would be increasingly positive. We discuss management and policy implications, including communication strategies aimed at engaging with NIPF landowners to highlight the purpose and potential outcomes of forest and riparian management regulations.     

The nameless counterpart: a reconstruction of the experiences of private forestry extension officers with their clients

The changes to the forest ownership structure of small private forests in recent times have opened up an intensive field of research throughout Europe. Most of the studies completed to date adhere to the classic survey model and describe the behaviour and attitudes of forest owners. The research presented in this article analyses the changes to small private forests with the aid of data collected from focus groups comprised of forestry extension officers in Germany. Through the reconstruction of the experiences gleaned by the consultants, it was possible to describe the manner in which they characterise their clientele, and the changes they have observed, against the backdrop of changes occurring across rural areas. The consultants’ strategies for describing forest owners are presented. The orientation pattern presented by the extension officers is compared with the urban orientation of forest owners’ model developed by social scientists.     

Comparison of harvesting and business activities of non-shareholders and shareholders in a forest common in Västerbotten,Sweden

Abstract

Swedish forest commons are collectively owned and managed by shareholders who always also own other forest holdings. The majority of them are non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners. The objective of this study was to assess differences, with respect to harvesting intensity and related business activities on their individually managed forest properties, between non-shareholders and shareholders in a Swedish forest common. Forest commons are intended to promote local agriculture and forestry and to serve as a model for forestry activities. On this basis, the hypotheses examined in this study were that the shareholders’ harvesting and business activities, as well as their contributions to the local economy, are greater than those of non-shareholders. An apparent difference between shareholders and non-shareholders was found, but it was unexpected since non-shareholders undertook more harvesting and business activities than shareholders, and contributed more to the local economy through taxes. Since no evidence was found for a significant difference between the two categories in their potential to undertake forestry activities, one provisional conclusion is that the outcome is partly due to differences between the institutional frameworks in which shareholders and non-shareholders operate and the impact of these frameworks on incentives to maximize forest production.