Eco‐efficiency as a strategy for optimizing the sustainability of pest management

Agricultural industrialization and the subsequent reliance on pesticides has resulted in numerous unintended consequences, such as impacts upon the environment and by extension human health. Eco‐efficiency is a strategy for sustainably increasing production, while simultaneously decreasing these externalities on ecological systems. Eco‐efficiency is defined as the ratio of production to environmental impacts. It has been widely adopted to improve chemical production, but we investigate the challenges of applying eco‐efficiency to pesticide use. Eco‐efficiency strategies include technological innovation, investment in research and development, improvement of business processes, and accounting for market forces. These components are often part of integrated pest management (IPM) systems that include alternatives to pesticides, but its implementation is often thwarted by commercial realities and technical challenges. We propose the creation and adoption of an eco‐efficiency index for pesticide use so that the broad benefits of eco‐efficient strategies such as IPM can be more readily quantified. We propose an index based upon the ratio of crop yield to a risk quotient (RQ) calculated from pesticide toxicity. Eco‐efficiency is an operational basis for optimizing pest management for sustainability. It naturally favors adoption of IPM and should be considered by regulators, researchers, and practitioners involved in pest management. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry     

Farmer perceptions and pesticide use practices in vegetable production in Ghana

As an initial part of a programme aimed at promoting safe and sound agricultural practices in Ghana, a study was made of farmers' perceptions of pesticides for use and application in vegetable production, using a small survey of 137 farmers who applied pesticides. Field surveys, interviews, questionnaires and analytical games were used to obtain information on the type, scope and extent of use of pesticides, farmers' knowledge of pesticides, and their perceptions about the chemicals' potential for harm. Data from this sample of farmers were used to describe the status of use of pesticides in vegetable cultivation in Ghana. Using chi2 tests, associations between farmers' age and possible pesticide poisoning symptoms, their farm size and method of spraying pesticides, and their perception of pesticide hazard and its perceived effectiveness against pests were also examined. The survey showed that knapsack sprayers were the most widely used type of equipment for spraying pesticides. However, on large-scale vegetable farms of 6-10 acres, motorised sprayers were also used. Various inappropriate practices in the handling and use of pesticides caused possible poisoning symptoms among those farmers who generally did not wear protective clothing. Younger farmers (<45 years of age) were the most vulnerable group, probably because they did more spraying than older farmers (>45 years of age). Farmers did not necessarily associate hazardous pesticides with better pest control. The introduction of well-targeted training programmes for farmers on the need for and safe use of pesticides is advocated.     

The Red Queen in a potato field: integrated pest management versus chemical dependency in Colorado potato beetle control

Originally designed to reconcile insecticide applications with biological control, the concept of integrated pest management (IPM) developed into the systems‐based judicious and coordinated use of multiple control techniques aimed at reducing pest damage to economically tolerable levels. Chemical control, with scheduled treatments, was the starting point for most management systems in the 1950s. Although chemical control is philosophically compatible with IPM practices as a whole, reduction in pesticide use has been historically one of the main goals of IPM practitioners. In the absence of IPM, excessive reliance on pesticides has led to repeated control failures due to the evolution of resistance by pest populations. This creates the need for constant replacement of failed chemicals with new compounds, known as the ‘insecticide treadmill’. In evolutionary biology, a similar phenomenon is known as the Red Queen principle – continuing change is needed for a population to persevere because its competitors undergo constant evolutionary adaptation. The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), is an insect defoliator of potatoes that is notorious for its ability to develop insecticide resistance. In the present article, a review is given of four case studies from across the United States to demonstrate the importance of using IPM for sustainable management of a highly adaptable insect pest. Excessive reliance on often indiscriminate insecticide applications and inadequate use of alternative control methods, such as crop rotation, appear to expedite evolution of insecticide resistance in its populations. Resistance to IPM would involve synchronized adaptations to multiple unfavorable factors, requiring statistically unlikely genetic changes. Therefore, integrating different techniques is likely to reduce the need for constant replacement of failed chemicals with new ones. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry     

European Union policy on pesticides: implications for agriculture in Ireland

European Community (EC) legislation has limited the availability of pesticide active substances used in effective plant protection products. The Pesticide Authorisation Directive 91/414/EEC introduced the principle of risk assessment for approval of pesticide active substances. This principle was modified by the introduction of Regulation (EC) 1107/2009, which applies hazard, the intrinsic toxicity of the active substance, rather than risk, the potential for hazard to occur, as the approval criterion. Potential impacts of EC pesticide legislation on agriculture in Ireland are summarised. While these will significantly impact on pesticide availability in the medium to long term, regulations associated with water quality (Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC and Drinking Water Directive 1998/83/EC) have the potential to restrict pesticide use more immediately, as concerns regarding public health and economic costs associated with removing pesticides from water increase. This rationale will further reduce the availability of effective pesticide active substances, directly affecting crop protection and increasing pesticide resistance within pest and disease populations. In addition, water quality requirements may also impact on important active substances used in plant protection in Ireland. The future challenge for agriculture in Ireland is to sustain production and profitability using reduced pesticide inputs within a framework of integrated pest management. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry     

Perspective: service‐based business models to incentivize the efficient use of pesticides in crop protection

Several problems limit the productivity and acceptance of crop protection, including pesticide overuse, pesticide resistance, poor adoption of integrated pest management (IPM), declining funding for research and extension, and inefficiencies of scale. We discuss the proposition that alternative business models for crop protection can address these problems by incentivizing and benefiting from efficiency of pesticide use. Currently, business models are not linked to the adoption of IPM and are sometimes at odds with IPM practices. We explore a business model based on the provision of pest management adequacy through services rather than the sale of pesticide products. Specifically, we advocate for establishment of crop protection adequacy standards that would allow a market system to maximize efficiency. Changing some of the relationships between agricultural companies and producers from one based on products to one based on services is an idea worthy of debate and evaluation for improving the efficiency of pest management. Contemporary information technology enhancing monitoring and coordination warrants attention in this debate. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry     

IPM: Overcoming Conflicts in Adoption

The diversity of competing interests in North America provides a remarkable series of divergent messages to growers. Depending on what crop they produce or how they farm, they may be heroes or villains, loyal or unpatriotic, or stewards or ravagers of the environment. Even relatively minor changes in farming practices can result in significant public or political response. Considering that growers may risk 100% of their crop yield on a potential savings of 10% (or less) for investment in pesticides, it is not surprising that growers are slow to adopt IPM programs. Well-intentioned appeals to eliminate pesticides, or save the environment at all costs, are usually not effective. Likewise, a high failure rate can be expected from attempts to legislate IPM, implement programs that focus on only part of a pest complex, or adoption strategies that do not include on-farm testing and extensive educational efforts. However, some strategies have proven effective. Growers who have experienced loss of pesticides due to resistance are receptive to management programs which avoid or delay resistance. Many programs have been adopted piecemeal, starting with sampling programs followed by treatment thresholds and modified pesticide use. One of the most successful approaches has been an economic comparison of grower standard and IPM programs using partial budgets. Increased net profits provide powerful incentives for program adoption.     

Integration of chemical and biological control systems for arthropods: Evaluation in a multitrophic context

The methods used to evaluate and categorise the effects of pesticides on beneficial arthropods are reviewed, including the potential significance of indirect, ‘sub-lethal’ activity and the importance of bioavailability of pesticides under semi-field or field conditions. Interspecific and intraspecific differences in the susceptibility of natural enemies (parasitoids and predators) to pesticides are considered, including the use of resistant strains in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) systems. The potential impact of pesticide resistance in the target pest on its natural enemies is also discussed. The need to assess the influence of the host plant/cultivar on the efficacy of pesticides for use in integrated control programmes (ditrophic effects) and of the possible effects of such chemicals on host plant/cultivar-pest-parasitoid systems (tritrophic effects) are then described with specific reference to the diamondback moth and key endolarval parasitoids. Finally, the potential for manipulation of tritrophic interactions to enhance parasitism by application of low doses of toxicants is demonstrated.     

Impacts of transgenic Bt cotton and integrated pest management education on smallholder cotton farmers

Abstract

Comparative field research on transgenic Bt cotton and conventional cotton under different conditions (fields without pesticide inputs, fields managed by farmers with IPM education, fields managed by farmers lacking IPM education) were carried out in Hubei province of China in 2002. The amount of pesticide used on Bt cotton by non-IPM farmers was found to be around three times that used by IPM farmers. IPM farmers made significantly higher net profits from cultivating transgenic Bt cotton in comparison with non-IPM farmers. Other pest management practices had more significant influences on the population dynamics of predatory natural enemies and major insect pests than did the adoption of transgenic Bt cotton in the cotton ecosystem. Our study showed that IPM education, by increasing farmer capacity to critically evaluate inputs and their effects, monitor their fields and make informed decisions on pest management, enabled farmers to reduce pesticide use significantly, so resulting in improved production and profit margin. IPM farmer education thus, contributed to maximising the value of planting transgenic Bt cotton.     

Implementation of integrated pest management in Israel

Supervised control programs were initiated by the Extension Service in the deciduous orchards of Upper Galilee and the Golan almost 20 years ago. The integrated pest management (IPM) project on fruit crops and vines, launched as a systematic state-wide program in 1991, covered 23% of the total acreage at the end of 1996. The program has reached a critical mass and generates a steady demand for this new kind of advisory service. The project has set the right pattern for intensive and continuous collaboration among research, extension and grower. The program has been successful in reaching out to growers with the help of a newly formed group of local and regional pest scouts; the field-level implementation is the responsibility of the extension system. A reduction of approximately 30% in the use of pesticides has been achieved. The project prepares the ground for environment-friendly and sustainable cropping systems, generating produce competitive on both the local as well as foreign markets. The program on indoor vegetables, flowers, herbs and spices initiated in 1992, had to address first the problem of the sweetpotato whitefly. The field program methodology relies on the establishment of model farms and plots. The model plots are used to examine supervised control scenarios which could, in turn, be diffused to all growers. A 30-50% reduction in the use of pesticides was achieved on the model farms. The program represents an integration of supervised control, fully fledged IPM, and biological control practices. The program on corn and cotton covers the entire acreage under these two crops. The cotton program is supported by an integrated resistance management component. Three area-wide pest management programs were initiated: in the Arava and Bet She’ an valleys, and in the Golan.     

Comparative effect of integrated pest management and farmers' standard pest control practice for managing insect pests on cabbage (Brassica spp.)

BACKGROUND: Studies were conducted on experimental cabbage plantings in 2009 and on experimental and commercial plantings in 2010, comparing farmers' current chemical standard pesticide practices with an integrated pest management (IPM) program based on the use of neem (Aza‐Direct) and DiPel (Bacillus thuringiensis). In experimental plantings, the IPM program used six or eight applications of neem and DiPel on a rotational basis. The standard‐practice treatments consisted of six or eight applications of carbaryl and malathion or control treatment. RESULTS: The IPM treatments reduced pest populations and damage, resulting in a better yield than with the standard chemical or control treatment. When IPM treatment included three applications of neem plus three applications of DiPel (on a rotational basis in experimental fields), it again reduced the pest population and damage and produced a better yield than the standard practice. The lower input costs of the IPM program resulted in better economic returns in both trials. CONCLUSIONS: The IPM components neem and DiPel are suitable for use in an IPM program for managing insect pests on cabbage (Brassica spp.). Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

The Lodi-Woodbridge Winegrape Commission: a Framework for Implementing IPM

The Lodi-Woodbridge Winegrape Commission Crush District 11 was created by referendum during the summer of 1991. The commission conducts extensive on-farm research trials and demonstration projects in cooperation with the University of California, the California State University system and local growers. The results have been disseminated through a series of regular grower meetings, seminars and an IPM newsletter sponsored by the commission and widespread coverage in the agriculture and general media. Several pest management practices which could reduce pesticide inputs have been promoted by the commission's IPM Program, and others are being further validated or are being researched for applicability to growers in the area. The research falls into two distinct categories. The first category of research is evaluation of the efficacy of recommended practices and includes economic analysis and the collection of biological data to evaluate performance from the perspectives of vineyard ecology, input use, and profitability. Intensive study of 10 growers over 2 years showed a highly variable level of adoption. The yield response to pest control inputs showed increasing returns up to the level of inputs of $375 per hectare after which returns leveled off. The second category of research is the development of alternative practices through on-farm controlled trials. The results of 3 on-farm trials are reported. A cover crop trial showed a reduction of pests in 1995 but no difference in 1994 between the cover cropped and bare soil blocks. Yellow sticky bands significantly reduced the number of leafhoppers in a trial vineyard, but was not as effective as pesticide treatments. The comparison of four alternative weed management techniques demonstrated that the use of an in-row cultivator is more effective than preemergent herbicides or mulch placed along the vine row in controlling weeds. A visual sprayer was shown to reduce the use of contact herbicide. The on-farm approach to all of the research and the in your own backyard nature of the meetings has created the sense of ownership for the growers that has been instrumental in achieving grower support. The public nature of the information provided by the commission and grower members to all winegrape producers implies a recognition among members of their interdependence and the long-term benefits of reducing pesticide use as a group. The recognition of interdependency is crucial for any group trying to form an IPM district.     

检疫害虫稻水象甲的控制技术研究进展

稻水象甲(Lissorhoptrus。oryzophilus Kuschel)是一种毁灭性的水稻害虫，也是一种重要的检疫害虫。近年来在很多省市发生为害，且发生程度不断加重并呈扩大蔓延趋势。本文概述了近年来稻水象甲大发生危害的情况及原因，深入分析了其发生规律，提出了加强植物检疫、农业防治、化学防治、生物防治、物理防治等综合治理的措施。     

Tree fruit IPM programs in the western United States: the challenge of enhancing biological control through intensive management

The seminal work of Stern and his coauthors on integrated control has had a profound and long‐lasting effect on the development of IPM programs in western orchard systems. Management systems based solely on pesticides have proven to be unstable, and the success of IPM systems in western orchards has been driven by conservation of natural enemies to control secondary pests, combined with pesticides and mating disruption to suppress the key lepidopteran pests. However, the legislatively mandated changes in pesticide use patterns prompted by the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 have resulted in an increased instability of pest populations in orchards because of natural enemy destruction. The management system changes have made it necessary to focus efforts on enhancing biological control not only of secondary pests but also of primary lepidopteran pests to help augment new pesticides and mating disruption tactics. The new management programs envisioned will be information extensive as well as time sensitive and will require redesign of educational and outreach programs to be successful. The developing programs will continue to use the core principles of Stern and his co‐authors, but go beyond them to incorporate changes in society, technology and information transfer, as needed. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Management of Stored Wheat Insect Pests in the USA

Management of stored-grain insect pests by farmers or elevator managers should be based upon a knowledge of the grain storage environment and the ecology of insect pests. Grain storage facilities and practices, geographical location, government policies, and marketing demands for grain quality are discussed as factors influencing stored-grain insect pest management decisions in the United States. Typical practices include a small number of grain samples designed to provide grain quality information for segregation, blending and marketing. This low sampling rate results in subjective evaluation and inconsistent penalties for insect-related quality factors. Information on the efficacy of insect pest management practices in the United States, mainly for farm-stored wheat, is discussed, and stored-grain integrated pest management (IPM) is compared to field-crop IPM. The transition from traditional stored-grain insect pest control to IPM will require greater emphasis on sampling to estimate insect densities, the development of sound economic thresholds and decision-making strategies, more selective use of pesticides, and greater use of nonchemical methods such as aeration. New developments in insect monitoring, predictive computer models, grain cooling by aeration, biological control, and fumigation are reviewed, their potential for improving insect pest management is discussed, and future research needs are examined.     

Responding to Economic Crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa: New Farmer-Developed Pest Management Strategies in Cocoa-Based Plantations in Southern Cameroon

Cocoa is a key or source of income and poverty reduction in the humid forest of Southern Cameroon. Cameroon like other African countries went through a major economic crisis in the early 1980s with a decline in international commodity prices and significant changes in macroeconomic policies. Structural adjustment reforms following the economic crisis led to removal of fertilizers and pesticides subsidies, cocoa price liberalization and the overall withdraw of Government interventions from the cocoa sub-sector. Cocoa input price increases have been compounded by the devaluation of the CFA Franc, which doubled the prices of the imported pesticides which were considered key to the control of cocoa pests. This overall economic shock led to changes in cocoa producer's production decisions as a response to minimize cost. Among the changes the use of alternatives to imported chemicals for cocoa pest control. Farmers responded to the high prices of pesticides by developing, from local botanical knowledge and pest management strategies, which include plant extracts and plant extracts mixed with pesticides at different proportions. This is a major decision given the importance of imported chemical in the cost of production of cocoa. Valuable indigenous knowledge from farmers could be used also as an effective support system for communicating and diffusing modern knowledge and technologies to farmers. The paper describes the farmer knowledge-based alternatives to chemical pesticides for pest control in cocoa fields as a response to high pest control costs. Pest management specialists are urged to take advantage of this shift in practice and assess their effectiveness for further use. Two sets of questions are posed: (1) were the conventional insecticides, with all their problems, really necessary? and (2) are the materials derived from locally grown plants effective pest management agents or are they, in some way, placebos?     

单季晚稻区应用生态工程技术控制水稻主要害虫的实践

以大量化肥和农药投入为特征的高度集约化生产方式导致我国稻田(尤其是单季晚稻)生态系统失衡、害虫猖獗、环境污染和农药残留超标等一系列问题。自2009年起,本课题组在浙江省宁波市单季晚稻区开展应用生态工程技术修复稻田生态服务功能、降低害虫种群、减少化肥农药使用的研究与实践。技术措施主要包括:一是调节生物多样性保护土著天敌数量;二是种植蜜源植物增强天敌控害功能;三是生物诱集减少害虫虫源基数;四是调整农药使用策略减少天敌杀伤;五是控肥降低害虫自然增长速率;六是集成简便、高效、省本生态控害技术。2013—2014年连续2年的调查结果表明,应用生态工程丰富了单季晚稻稻田生态系统中节肢动物生物多样性、增加了天敌种群数量,稻田生态功能得到良好修复,害虫被持续控制在较低的水平,杀虫剂的使用减少93.75%,比农民自防区平均减少12.42%氮肥量的情况下水稻产量增产9.99%,实现社会、经济、生态效益的有机统一。该技术体系对环境友好、简单易行,已成为国家主推技术,应用推广前景广阔。     

Farmers’ attitudes towards pesticide labels: implications for personal and environmental safety

The label of pesticide containers is a major source of information for the use of pesticides, but research on whether farmers use this information is scarce. A survey of small-scale cotton farmers was conducted in the area of Punjab, Pakistan, to study attitudes related with the use of pesticide labels. The majority of the farmers (97%) stated that they were using pesticide products purchased in their original containers and accompanied by written information for use. However, 73% of the farmers reported that they usually do not read this information. Elderly, less educated, and experienced farmers in chemical pest control, but without previous training, were found to be less likely to read the labels. A large part of the farmers (34%) stated that they primarily rely on information of pesticide retailers for pesticide use, while nearly four out of ten said they usually rely on other sources of information or their own experience with pesticides. A sizeable proportion of the farmers (9%) mentioned that there is no need to receive information on such issues. Effective pesticide risk communication conveyed through label information is important so that potential risks from pesticide handling may be mitigated at the point of use.     

Ecological network analysis: an application to the evaluation of effects of pesticide use in an agricultural environment

Ecological network analysis is used to evaluate the impact of pesticide use on ecological systems in the context of agricultural farmland environments. The aim is to provide support for the design of effective and minimally damaging pest control strategies. The ecological network analysis can identify species that are important to the integrity of the ecological network. The methodology can be used to monitor the impact of shifts in terms of types of pesticide used on the ecological system. The authors' intention is to use this methodology to provide supporting evidence for the UK Voluntary Initiative programme aimed at convincing farmers voluntarily to make improved choices in the use of a wide range of pesticides.     

Do some IPM concepts contribute to the development of fungicide resistance? Lessons learned from the apple scab pathosystem in the United States

One goal of integrated pest management (IPM) as it is currently practiced is an overall reduction in fungicide use in the management of plant disease. Repeated and long‐term success of the early broad‐spectrum fungicides led to optimism about the capabilities of fungicides, but to an underestimation of the risk of fungicide resistance within agriculture. In 1913, Paul Ehrlich recognized that it was best to ‘hit hard and hit early’ to prevent microbes from evolving resistance to treatment. This tenet conflicts with the fungicide reduction strategies that have been widely promoted over the past 40 years as integral to IPM. The authors hypothesize that the approaches used to implement IPM have contributed to fungicide resistance problems and may still be driving that process in apple scab management and in IPM requests for proposals. This paper also proposes that IPM as it is currently practiced for plant diseases of perennial systems has been based on the wrong model, and that conceptual shifts in thinking are needed to address the problem of fungicide resistance. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry     

Jointness in farmers' decision to apply pesticides in multiple crops and its determinants at the farm level in Bangladesh

Decision about pesticide application for pest control is an issue of major concern, but research on factors affecting decision-making is limited. This study investigates jointness in farmers' decision to apply pesticides in multiple crops and socio-economic determinants of pesticide use across crops using a survey of 2083 farms from 17 districts in Bangladesh applying a multivariate Tobit model. Overall, 75.4% and 12.7% of the farmers applied pesticides in one and two crops, respectively. The decision to apply pesticides in multiple crops was found to be negatively correlated, providing evidence of jointness. Also, individual socio-economic factors exerted variable influences on pesticide use in different crops. Output price significantly increases pesticide use whereas the influence of fertilizer price and labour wage is varied. Educated farmers use significantly more pesticides in rice and oilseed. Marginal and small farmers use significantly less pesticides in wheat/maize and pulse. Policy implications include price policies to reduce fertilizer prices and engaging agricultural extension agencies and non-governmental organizations to disseminate information on specific crop combinations which will synergistically reduce pesticide use.