A survey of aquaculture production economics and management

Abstract

The literature on production economics and management of fish culture has grown as aquaculture has matured as a commercial industry. Salmon, catfish, shrimp and trout are the focus of this literature survey as a reflection of the volume of research that has been completed on these species and their importance in US production and world trade. In addition, a discussion of low resource production systems is included that is dominated by tilapia and carp culture systems. A brief overview of the principles of aquaculture production economics and management is presented followed by a review of economic studies.     

The Potential and Sustainability of Aquaculture in India

ABSTRACT

India is a very populous country with more than one billion people. In order to provide food for this growing population, serious environmental problems may result. Despite many benefits from the green, blue, and silver revolutions adopted in India, there has been much concern resulting from intensive agricultural practices that led to environmental problems in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Increasing demand for aquatic resources also caused inland fisheries to decrease over the past few decades. The location of aquaculture projects, landscape destruction, soil and water pollution by pond effluents, over-exploitation of important fish stocks, depletion in biodiversity, conflicts over agriculture and aquaculture among various stakeholder groups over resource and space allocation, and international fish trade controversies have threatened the long-term sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture industries. The subject of sustainable aquaculture has not been adequately projected in terms of current aquaculture practices aimed to boost a rural economy. This review briefly describes the key issues of aquaculture unsustainability in terms of intensive aquaculture, nutrient enrichment syndrome, soil and groundwater salinization, destruction of mangroves, loss of biodiversity, marine pollution and loss of fish stock, use of aquachemicals and therapeutics, hormone residues, etc. The strategies for sustainability have been highlighted with respect to rice-cum-fish culture, carp polyculture, integrated farming with livestock, rural aquaculture, intensification of small farms, wastewater-fed aquaculture, crop rotation, probiotics, feed quality, socioeconomic considerations, environmental regulations and fisheries acts, transboundary aquatic ecosystems, impact of alien species, ethical aspects of intensive aquaculture, responsible fisheries, and environmental impact assessment. A suggested model outlines the feedback mechanisms for achieving long-term sustainability through improved farm management practices, integrated farming, use of selective aquachemicals and probiotics, conservation of natural resources, regulatory mechanism, and policy instruments.     

THE FARMING PRACTICES AND ECONOMICS OF AQUACULTURE IN THAILAND

ABSTRACT

The paper reviews freshwater and coastal aquaculture practices in Thailand, and compares the productivity, costs, and benefits across various types of cultivation and various intensities of production. The paper is based on data that were collected in surveys conducted during 1998–2001 by the Department of Fisheries (DOF), Thailand and the WorldFish Center. More than 22% of Thailand's fish supply comes from aquaculture, with coastal aquaculture accounting for more than 88% of this in terms of value. Intensive culture of shrimp is the dominant form of coastal aquaculture, occupying 69% of the area under production. However, in some regions, the average net profit/kg of intensive shrimp culture is negative, and semi-intensive farming, with relatively lower fixed investment and operating costs, delivers the highest rate of return on investment. On the coast, grouper and sea bass are the most important cage-cultivated species, achieving an economic rate of return as high as 92%. In the same environment, culture of mollusks, such as green mussels, oysters, and blood cockles, is widespread. It can also be economically sustainable, with relatively low capital and operating costs. Although the relative share of freshwater aquaculture production is declining, the level of output has been increasing rapidly. While the average production from monoculture of carnivorous species is higher than that from polyculture, the average capital investment and operating costs associated with the former are also higher. The expansion of freshwater polyculture and of mollusk culture in coastal areas would greatly assist poor fish farmers.     

Development of California Halibut,Paralichthys californicus,Culture

Abstract

In contrast to freshwater aquaculture and the culture of anadromous species such as salmon, marine fish culture is in its infancy. The small larval size of many marine species presents significant challenges to culture, however, these highly valuable fish offer considerable promise for aquaculture. A particularly attractive group for marine aquaculture is the flatfish. The California halibut, Paralichthys californicus, with a range in nature from Washington State south to Baja California Sur, Mexico is one such species.

With the goal of enhancing the fishery for this species, a hatchery program was developed over a decade ago. The hatchery at Redondo Beach, California, maintains a group of adults that routinely spawn throughout most of each year. Further development of routine culture and juvenile growout techniques ultimately aimed at commercial aquaculture was initiated last year with support from the California Sea Grant College Program.

Profitable commercial ventures culturing various flatfish species already exist in other parts of the world, but development of a flatfish culture industry in California confronts unique challenges. Two challenges in particular are the relatively high cost of energy and stringent environmental regulations. To meet these challenges, a culture system built around recirculation technology is being developed that would allow for an energy-efficient industrial-like approach to the culture of California halibut while minimizing environmental impacts.     

Technical efficiency of carp production in Nepal: An application of stochastic frontier production function approach*

Abstract

Modern aquaculture is a relatively new activity among Nepalese farmers and a small contributor to the economy. Given the abundance of water resources and fish species, rising demand for fish, and its high profitability, aquaculture has potential for future expansion if it is given appropriate attention from the government. In Nepal, productivity in aquaculture is much lower compared to other countries in the region, which suggests that there is potential for increased fish production through technological progress and improvement in farm‐level technical efficiency. However, no formal analysis has yet been conducted to assess the productive performance of Nepalese aquaculture and its potential for future improvement. Against this background, this paper examines the technical efficiency and its determinants for a sample of fish pond farms from the Tarai region of the country using a stochastic production frontier involving a model for technical inefficiency effects. The estimated mean technical efficiency is 77%, with intensive farms being more efficient than extensive farms. The adoption of regular fish, water, and feed management activities has a strong positive effect on technical efficiency.     

A model to assess trade-offs between environmental impact and profitability of offshore salmon farms: A case study on Chile

ABSTRACT

In recent decades, aquaculture has emerged as a viable method to help supply the growing global demand for seafood; however, expansion of the industry comes with potential negative impacts. Regulatory decisions governing aspects like aquaculture farming practices and farm siting inherently lead to trade-offs between profitability and the health of the surrounding environment through impacts including pollution, disease, and disturbance from escaped fish. Efficiently and sustainably scaling up aquaculture will require the development of methods for explicitly examining the trade-offs among these impacts and socioeconomic objectives. We developed a model to assess these trade-offs and illustrate the approach with a case study of salmon aquaculture in southern Chile. In the case study we found evidence that all 21 farms with approved permits may be underperforming on both profitability and the protection of ecosystem health. Our model suggests that explicit evaluation of trade-offs can illuminate the potential for improvements on multiple outcomes simultaneously.     

Current status of parasitic ciliates Chilodonella spp. (Phyllopharyngea: Chilodonellidae) in freshwater fish aquaculture

Freshwater fish farming contributes to more than two‐thirds of global aquaculture production. Parasitic ciliates are one of the largest causes of production loss in freshwater farmed fishes, with species from the genus Chilodonella being particularly problematic. While Chilodonella spp. include ‘free‐living’ fauna, some species are involved in mortality events of fish, particularly in high‐density aquaculture. Indeed, chilodonellosis causes major productivity losses in over 16 species of farmed freshwater fishes in more than 14 countries. Traditionally, Chilodonella species are identified based on morphological features; however, the genus comprises yet uncharacterized cryptic species, which indicates the necessity for molecular diagnostic methods. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the biology, ecology and geographic distribution of harmful Chilodonella spp. and examines pathological signs, diagnostic methods and treatments. Recent advances in molecular diagnostics and the ability to culture Chilodonella spp. in vitro will enable the development of preventative management practices and sustained freshwater fish aquaculture production.     

Towards sustainable freshwater prawn aquaculture – lessons from shrimp farming, with special reference to India

The annual increase in farmed freshwater prawn production in the world during the decade ending 2001 has been estimated as 29% and that during 1999–2001 as 48%, the production in 2001 being about 300 000 mt (all Macrobrachium species). Between 1999 and 2003 the annual increase in farmed Macrobrachium rosenbergii production in India was about 80%, production reaching 30 450 mt in 2002–2003. This log phase of production followed the rise and fall of shrimp farming in the country. Several shrimp farming ventures collapsed in the 1990s, owing to degraded environment and diseases, abetted by lack of awareness and inadequacy of information on the culture systems and their interactions with other human endeavours. This shrimp farming experience has made the aquafarmer and other stakeholders aware that while aquaculture has a high potential in ensuring food and nutritional security and livelihood, besides profit to the farmer and socio‐economic benefits to local communities, it is likely to slip from sustainable development pathways if adequate understanding, improved management practices, governmental policies and plans for implementation and regulation to ensure sustainability are not in place. The lessons learned from shrimp farming can help in steering the development of sustainable freshwater prawn aquaculture in India and elsewhere.     

Economic evaluation of mud crab farming under different production systems in India

Abstract

Apart from penaeid shrimp culture, crab farming and fattening and other several diversified aquaculture practices are now emerging as viable ventures in India. About 11 types of crab products are being exported from India with an average unit value realization of US$ 3.73 kg^?1, pinpointing its importance in the foreign exchange earnings. An economic evaluation of mud crab culture, fattening and fattening with composite culture of shrimp/finfish has been attempted in this paper. The major operating cost was that of seed and it was higher for crab fattening (87% of the total operating cost). Feed costs were very low compared to that of shrimp farming. Annual profit obtained was US$ 22812.5 ha^?1 year^?1 for culture and US$ 30820.8 ha^?1 year^?1 for fattening. Economic indicators such as net profit, rate of return, pay back period and breakeven price indicate that crab fattening/culture is much more profitable than any other coastal aquaculture operations currently in practice, provided hatchery production is established in the country to ensure adequate supply of mud crab seeds.     

Nutrition and feeding research in the spotted rose snapper (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lutjanus guttatus</Emphasis>) and bullseye puffer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sphoeroides annulatus</Emphasis>), new species for marine aquaculture

The spotted rose snapper (Lutjanus guttatus) and bullseye puffer (Sphoeroides annulatus) are fish species from the tropical Eastern Pacific for which controlled production of larvae and juveniles has been accomplished in recent years. Diverse topics relating to their biology and aquaculture production are currently under study, in particular the nutrition and feeding aspects required to formulate practical feeds and rearing protocols. Improvements in larval growth and survival are possible by feeding live food organisms with natural or enhanced essential fatty acids content and highly digestible artificial microdiets. The ontogeny of the digestive tract and the expression and activity of digestive enzymes have been described for S. annulatus larvae. The effect of various protein and lipid levels on growth and feed utilization has been studied in juvenile and on-growing fish. Both species have carnivorous feeding habits and require high levels of protein in their diets, from 40% to 45% (dry weight) in spotted rose snapper and above 50% in bullseye puffer, with the younger stages requiring the highest protein levels. Encouraging results have been obtained in feeding experiments with different sources of dietary protein from animal and plant origin to evaluate their suitability as feed ingredients in practical diets. Optimization of fish culture practices through feeding management has also been investigated. Trials with various fish densities and feeding frequencies in intensive culture systems are providing information to improve feed utilization and growth in on-growing fish. Further research is underway to evaluate factors in broodstock nutrition which have an impact on egg and larval quality, and into the use of various commercially available oil sources in on-growing diets. In this paper, the results on nutrition and feeding research with both species are reviewed and research needs to support their commercial production in the region are discussed.     

Economics of cage culture in Puerto Rico

Abstract

Puerto Rico has been faced with a decline of fish stocks similar to other parts of the world. Offshore cage aquaculture might be an answer to this problem although there are many unanswered questions. This paper describes a project in Puerto Rico that assessed the economics of offshore cage culture for aquaculture. The first cage was placed in the water in February 2002 with a second one to follow shortly thereafter.     

Fathead minnow reproduction: Implications for commercial culture

The fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, is widely used as a bait, forage, and research fish in the United States. A hardy and fecund fish, this species has many attributes that are excellent for culture. Unfortunately, despite the widespread use of fathead minnows in toxicity testing and thousands of resulting publications, relatively little aquaculture‐related research has been conducted in support of commercial production. On the surface, current commercial fathead minnow production practices appear much the same as those of a decade ago. However, producers continue to refine culture methods, balancing broodfish stocking rates, spawning substrate quantity, and feeding rates in an attempt to meet both losses to predators and market demand. This review examines relevant reproduction‐related studies in the fields of ecology, behavior, toxicology, and aquaculture with the goal of advancing fathead minnow culture. In fathead minnow production, relative to the culture of food fish species, reproduction is vital, more so than rapid growth or a low feed conversion ratio. Fish numbers may exceed 1 million fish/ha, while feeding rates are relatively low and in feeder fish production, growth is deliberately restrained in order to maintain fish within market sizes year‐round. Underappreciated factors identified as affecting reproduction and with implications for commercial culture include: (a) poor egg adhesion to commonly used spawning substrates, (b) egg and fry cannibalism at high fish densities, and (c) the relatively short breeding period of individual males. Results highlight the importance of selecting an appropriate broodfish stocking rate based on fish size, anticipated pond fertility, and feeding program. New methods to improve reproductive performance will likely increase costs and will need to be accompanied by thorough economic analyses.     

Nitrogen removal techniques in aquaculture for a sustainable production

As the aquaculture industry intensively develops, its environmental impact increases. Discharges from aquaculture deteriorate the receiving environment and the need for fishmeal and fish oil for fish feed production increases. Rotating biological contactors, trickling filters, bead filters and fluidized sand biofilters are conventionally used in intensive aquaculture systems to remove nitrogen from culture water. Besides these conventional water treatment systems, there are other possible modi operandi to recycle aquaculture water and simultaneously produce fish feed. These double-purpose techniques are the periphyton treatment technique, which is applicable to extensive systems, and the proteinaceous bio-flocs technology, which can be used in extensive as well as in intensive systems. In addition to maintenance of good water quality, both techniques provide an inexpensive feed source and a higher efficiency of nutrient conversion of feed. The bio-flocs technology has the advantage over the other techniques that it is relatively inexpensive; this makes it an economically viable approach for sustainable aquaculture.     

Aquaculture in Egypt and issues for sustainable development

Abstract

Although aquaculture in Egypt has the potential for satisfying the increased demand for protein and has been experiencing unprecedented growth during the last decade, questions remain regarding the sustainable development of the industry. It is thus the objective of this article to review the current status and practices of the aquaculture industry in Egypt, highlighting the major issues confronting the sustainable development of the aquaculture industry.

Several issues are identified as limitations to future sustainable development, namely, production technology, fry supply, a feed industry sufficient to meet the demands of a growing aquaculture industry, and marketing and distribution systems necessary to accommodate the strong seasonal supply pattern. The article then concludes with a discussion of recommendations for alleviating these limitations.     

The Impact of Nutrient Concentration (N:P) and Manure Type on Fish Polyculture

Abstract

Nutrient availability is considered to have a major role in controlling primary productivity. Therefore, an important aspect of successful aquaculture management in fish culture systems is making available basic nutrients, for example, phosphorous (P), nitrogen (N), and carbon (C) in optimal concentrations. The use of fertilizers in relation to pond productivity has been studied in order to develop better fertilization procedures under given environmental conditions. Many researchers from across the world have suggested different N:P ratios for optimizing fish production. The primary aim of this study was to understand the influence of nutrient quality and quantity on fish and primary productivity in terms of optimizing fish production. Two objectives of this study include evaluating the performance of pig and cow manures in terms of primary productivity and fish production; and understanding the influence of different N concentrations ranging from 1-2 ppm on fish production while P was maintained at 0.5 ppm. It was evident from this research that fish species nutrient-sensitivity to nitrogen concentrations ranging from 1-2 ppm was significantly different. The 1 ppm N:0.5 ppm P concentration was found to be the most suitable nutrient ratio for pond fertilization as significantly higher fish production and lower mortality were recorded in this treatment. In terms of plankton and fish production, pig manure was found to be significantly more effective than cow manure. Higher nutrient (>1 ppm N) concentrations negatively impacted zoo-plankton and zoo benthos development. Daily manure application would considerably reduce the organic load in the fish culture system, enabling more efficient use of nutrients for primary and secondary production.     

墨瑞鳕大棚水泥池养殖技术试验

为调整上海郊区的水产养殖结构,开发水产新品种,提升养殖效益,2021年在上海市郊某合作社开展了墨瑞鳕(Maccullochella peelii)大棚水泥池养殖试验。试验采用2口大棚水泥池,投放经标粗培育的平均体质量为150 g/尾的墨瑞鳕大规格鱼种,放养密度为25尾/m²,全程投喂粗蛋白质质量分数43%的海水鱼膨化饲料。经过13个月养殖,共收获墨瑞鳕商品鱼9 576 kg(单位产量13.3 kg/m³,平均规格696.2 g/尾),饲料系数为1.58,单位产值为1 030元/m³。墨瑞鳕大棚水泥池养殖试验成功,对水产养殖结构调优具有一定的借鉴作用。     

Aquaculture and international trade

Abstract

In contrast to the stabilization or decline of wild fishery harvests, aquaculture's contribution to the world fish supply is steadily increasing. Aquaculture has begun to have a major influence on the trade of export‐orientated species such as salmon and shrimp. This paper reviews the role of aquaculture in international trade and the research which has been conducted to examine its influence. Despite the growing significance of aquaculture on international trade, especially for shrimp and salmon, formal analysis of the shrimp trade is sparse, only moderate for salmon, and essentially nonexistent for other species. This paper also presents specific examples of how aquaculture has played an important role in international trade. These include an examination of: (1) the influence of shrimp aquaculture and trade on the development of a shrimp futures contract; and (2) the countervailing duty and antidumping case against the Norwegian farmed salmon industry.     

An assessment of alternative strategies for the integration of pond aquaculture into the small‐scale farming system of North‐east Thailand

Abstract

This paper uses a linear programming model to examine the economic viability of four fish production strategies in the context of rainfed farming systems in the north‐eastern region of Thailand. The four systems are rice bran feeding system, pond fertilization using buffalo manure, fish production recommendations developed by the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) Recommendations and an integrated duck/fish production system. These systems have been introduced into North‐eastern Thailand where the main obstacles to fish production are the lack of indigenous knowledge offish culture and a shortage of water. While technical feasibility studies are needed to evaluate the practical viability of aquaculture technologies, economic assessment is required to assess their commercial viability. The objective of this paper is to examine whether or not these fish production systems can contribute to, and integrate with, the prevailing farm system in the North‐east of Thailand. The linear programming model is used to determine the optimum on farm product mix that maximizes net returns under each of the four production systems. Among different resources, labour requirement in the fish‐stocking month appeared to be the first binding resource, while capital requirement was not a constraint for an average farming household of the region. A sensitivity analysis is presented to show how each of the fish production systems operates with different levels of pond size, labour and capital availability. The results of the study show that these aquaculture systems are economically attractive and can contribute significantly to the livelihood of the small‐scale farmers of North‐east Thailand.     

Striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus,Sauvage, 1878) aquaculture in Bangladesh: an overview

Farming of the striped catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus, is a major aquaculture activity in Bangladesh, particularly in the district of Mymensingh. However, pangasius farm management practices and the socio‐economic impacts of pangasius farming systems in Mymensingh have not yet been adequately described in the literature. This article provides an overview of the present status and characteristics of pangasius culture in Bangladesh based on data from a study conducted in Mymensingh district during 2009. The mean productivity of pangasius was 36.9 MT ha^?1, where 87.9% of the farms produced between 15 and 65 MT ha^?1 of pangasius, with an additional 10–20% Indian major and Chinese carps and Nile tilapia. Pangasius aquaculture in Bangladesh has improved the economic and social status of a variety of stakeholders in communities where the fish is farmed.     

CHINA'S ACCESSION TO THE WTO AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FISHERY AND AQUACULTURE SECTOR

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews recent developments in China's fishery and aquaculture sectors, as well as the policies affecting rural households in general and fisheries households in particular. It explores how China's policies may change as a result of the nation joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) in December 2001 and the likely impacts of these changes on China's fishery and aquaculture sector. It was found that the domestic fish markets are gradually integrating, suggesting that fish price shifts in one area will affect prices in most parts of the country. It was also found that, compared with the prices of other agricultural commodities, the domestic prices of most aquatic products are well below world prices. This suggests that exports of aquatic products would be able to expand now that the nation has joined the WTO and that fishers would gain from this move.