Assessment of small mammal diversity in coffee agroforestry in the Western Ghats,India

Coffee agroforestry is a conservation strategy that has shown promise to support the diversity of bird, bat, and insect communities, but few studies have focused on non-volant mammals in coffee farms. We assessed mammal diversity within coffee agroforestry systems in Kodagu, India and investigated the impacts of the non-native shade tree species, Grevillea robusta, on mammal diversity. Twenty farms, with varying amounts of G. robusta planted within the coffee farm, were sampled throughout three rainfall zones during the 4-month study period. We captured six species of small mammals, with indirect methods yielding an additional five species, totaling 11 mammal species. Contrary to current ecological thought, we found that increased amounts of G. robusta did not have a negative impact on either abundance or richness of mammals. Small mammal abundances were higher at farms with greater amounts of herbaceous ground cover and larger, mature shade trees, while small mammal species richness was found to increase with an increase in tree species richness as well as greater amounts of herbaceous ground cover. Additionally, small mammal abundance was higher at coffee farms closer to forested areas. Based on these findings, we suggest the maintenance or cultivation of shade tree richness, mature shade trees, and herbaceous ground cover within coffee farms and preservation of forested areas within the landscape to enhance coffee agroforestry habitat for non-volant mammals. We hope that these habitat requirements will be incorporated into conservation strategies for the promotion of biodiversity within coffee agroforestry systems.     

Ecosystem services from coffee agroforestry in Central America: estimation using the CAF2021 model

The goal of sustainable coffee production requires multiple functions from agroforestry systems. Many are difficult to quantify and data are lacking, hampering the choice of shade tree species and agronomic management. Process-based modelling may help quantify ecosystem services and disservices. We introduce and apply coffee agroforestry model CAF2021 (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5862195). The model allows for complex systems with up to three shade tree species. It simulates coffee yield, timber and fruit production by shade trees, soil loss in erosion, C-sequestration, N-fixation, -emission and -leaching. To calibrate the model, we used multivariate data from 32 different treatments applied in two long-term coffee agroforestry experiments in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Without any further calibration, the model was then applied to agroforestry systems on 89 farms in Costa Rica and 79 in Guatemala where yields had been reported previously in farmer interviews. Despite wide variation in environmental and agronomic conditions, the model explained 36% of yield variation in Costa Rica but only 15% in Guatemala. Model analysis quantified trade-offs between yield and other ecosystem services as a function of fertilisation and shading.

     

The scope and potential of agroforestry in Central America

Although agroforestry practices have been used in Central America since pre-Columbian times, scientific initiatives in agroforestry began only about 15 years ago in this region. This paper describes the evolution of agroforestry in the Central American region, and discusses the relative merits of generating new procedures or encouraging traditional practices. This is followed by an analysis of several particularly promising practices—use of N-fixing trees to shade cacao and coffee, timber trees in pastures, and living fenceposts. Finally, a list of research gaps and recommendations for future efforts is presented. It is concluded that, from the perspective of scientific knowledge, agroforestry in Central America has taken off but the link between scientific knowledge and effective field application is still lacking.     

Changes in arboreal ant populations following pruning of coffee shade-treesin Chiapas,Mexico

Reducing or eliminating shade cover in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems affects fungal disease and pest outbreaks, coffee yields, and can result in biodiversity loss of important predators, such as ants. Less dramatic changes in shade structure or composition may also affect ants. Shade tree pruning, a common management practice in shaded coffee systems, has unknown consequences for ant communities. The effects of pruning on arboreal ant communities were investigated by measuring ant abundance, distribution, and species richness in the short (1 week) and long-term (6 months) after shade tree pruning in one 25×50 m plot. Shade tree pruning significantly affected the distribution and abundance of two of the most common ant species (Azteca instabilis F. Smith and Camponotus senex textor Forel), and in general did not affect other ants. After pruning, C. senex textor ants were 80% more abundant on coffee plants and shade trees, whereas A. instabilis abundance dropped by 40% on coffee plants and 73% on shade trees after pruning. Additionally, C. senex textor were significantly more widespread, whereas A. instabilis distributions were more restricted. The effects of pruning were strong over the short-term, but were not evident over the long-term. Shade tree pruning did not affect ant diversity. Thus shade tree pruning largely affected certain aspects of arboreal ant communities in one coffee agroforestry system, with important implications for biological control.     

Shade trees: a determinant to the relative success of organic versus conventional coffee production

Greater understanding of the influences on long-term coffee productivity are needed to develop systems that are profitable, while maximizing ecosystem services and lowering negative environmental impacts. We examine a long-term experiment (15 years) established in Costa Rica in 2000 and compare intensive conventional (IC) coffee production under full sun with 19 agroforestry systems combining timber and service tree species with contrasting characteristics, with conventional and organic managements of different intensities. We assessed productivity through coffee yield and coffee morphological characteristics. IC had the highest productivity but had the highest yield bienniality; in the agroforestry systems productivity was similar for moderate conventional (MC) and intensive organic (IO) treatments (yield 5.3 vs. 5.0 t ha^?1 year^?1). Significantly lower yields were observed under shade than full sun, but coffee morphology was similar. Low input organic production (LO) declined to zero under the shade of the non-legume timber tree Terminalia amazonia but when legume tree species were chosen (Erythrina poepiggiana, Chloroleucon eurycyclum) LO coffee yield was not significantly different than for IO. For the first 6 years, coffee yield was higher under the shade of timber trees (Chloroleucon and Terminalia), while in the subsequent 7 years, Erythrina systems were more productive; presumably this is due to lower shade covers. If IC full sun plantations are not affordable or desired in the future, organic production is an interesting alternative with similar productivity to MC management and in LO systems incorporation of legume tree species is shown to be essential.     

Plant-soil interactions in multistrata agroforestry in the humid tropicsa

Multistrata agroforestry systems with tree crops comprise a variety of land use systems ranging from plantations of coffee, cacao or tea with shade trees to highly diversified homegardens and multi-storey tree gardens. Research on plant-soil interactions has concentrated on the former. Tree crop-based land use systems are more efficient in maintaining soil fertility than annual cropping systems. Certain tree crop plantations have remained productive for many decades, whereas homegardens have existed in the same place for centuries. However, cases of fertility decline under tree crops, including multistrata agroforestry systems, have also been reported, and research on the causal factors (both socioeconomic and biophysical) is needed. Plantation establishment is a critical phase, during which the tree crops require inputs but do not provide economic outputs. In larger plantations, tree crops are often established together with a leguminous cover crop, whereas in smallholder agriculture, the initial association with food crops and short-lived cash crops can have both socioeconomic and biological advantages. Fertilizers applied to, and financed by, such crops can help to `recapitalize' soil fertility and improve the development conditions of the young tree crops. Favorable effects on soil fertility and crop nutrition have been observed in associations of tree crops with N<sub>2</sub>-fixing legume trees, especially under N-deficient conditions. Depending on site conditions, the substitution of legume `service' trees with fast-growing timber trees may lead to problems of competition for nutrients and water, which may be alleviated through appropriate planting designs. The reduction of nutrient leaching and the recycling of subsoil nutrients are ways to increase the availability of nutrients in multistrata systems, and at the same time, reduce negative environmental impacts. These processes are optimized through fuller occupation of the soil volume by roots, allowing a limited amount of competition between associated species. The analysis of temporal and spatial patterns of water and nutrient availability within a system helps to optimize the use of soil resources, e.g., by showing where more plants can be added or fertilizer rates reduced. Important research topics in multistrata agroforestry include plantation establishment, plant arrangement and management for maximum complementarity of resource use in space and time, and the optimization of soil biological processes, such as soil organic matter build-up and the stabilization and improvement of soil structure by roots, fauna and microflora. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Timber harvest,damage to crop plants and yield reduction in two Costa Rican coffee plantations with Cordia alliodora shade trees

Both model and field estimations were made of the damage inflicted to coffee plants due to the harvest of timber shade trees (Cordia alliodora) in coffee plantations. Economic analyses were made for different coffee planting densities, yields, and both coffee and timber prices.Damage due to tree felling and log skidding should not be a major limitation to the use of timber shade trees in coffee plantations. The timber price that would balance all discounted losses and benefits to zero, for scenarios with and without trees ranged between 8–20 US $/m³ (current overbark log volume at the saw mill yard is US$ 66/m³). There will be lower margins for coffee damage in high yielding plantations, specially in years of good coffee prices. Nevertheless, the use of timber shade trees is recommended even in these scenarios.     

Transpiration of Arabica Coffee and Associated Shade Tree Species in Sub-optimal, Low-altitude Conditions of Costa Rica

Sap flows of coffee (Coffea arabica L. cv ‘Costa Rica 95’) and associated timber trees (Eucalyptus deglupta or Terminalia ivorensis) or leguminous tree (Erythrina poeppigiana) were measured simultaneously during 12 months in 4-year-old coffee agroforestry systems in sub-optimal ecological conditions of Costa Rica. In the wet period, coffee and shade tree transpiration followed the daily patterns of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and reference evapotranspiration (ETo) while their transpiration was restricted at higher air VPD values (>1.5 kPa) registered during the dry period. Coffee transpired more per unit leaf area in full sun than under shade, an indication of higher environmental coffee stress in non shaded conditions. Nonetheless, coffee daily water consumption per hectare was generally higher under shade than in full sun due higher vegetative growth of shade-grown coffee plants. Minimum and maximum daily transpiration were 0.74 and 4.08 mm for coffee, 0.35 and 1.06 mm for E. deglupta, 0.70 and 2.10 mm for T. ivorensis and 0.13 and 0.79 mm for E. poeppigiana. Estimation of the annual combined water transpiration by coffee and shade trees was 20–250% higher than that of coffee grown in full sun. Nevertheless, there was no evidence that water use by associated trees decreased soil water availability for coffee and hence limited coffee transpiration in the dry season due to its relatively short length (3 months) and the high annual rainfall (over 3100 mm). In the sub-optimal, low altitude conditions of this experiment, E. deglupta was the optimum shade species as it maintained a more constant shade level throughout the year and ensured a better protection to coffee underneath than T. ivorensis and E. poeppigiana which underwent a complete defoliation during the adverse meteorological conditions of the dry period.     

Shade management in coffee and cacao plantations

Shade trees reduce the stress of coffee (Coffea spp.) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) by ameliorating adverse climatic conditions and nutritional imbalances, but they may also compete for growth resources. For example, shade trees buffer high and low temperature extremes by as much as 5 °C and can produce up to 14 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 of litterfall and pruning residues, containing up to 340 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1. However, N₂ fixation by leguminous shade trees grown at a density of 100 to 300 trees ha^-1 may not exceed 60 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1. Shade tree selection and management are potentially important tools for integrated pest management because increased shade may increase the incidence of some commercially important pests and diseases (such as Phythphora palmivora and Mycena citricolor) and decrease the incidence of others (such as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Cercospora coffeicola). In Central America, merchantable timber production from commercially important shade tree species, such as Cordia alliodora, is in the range of 4–6m³ ha^-1 yr^-1. The relative importance and overall effect of the different interactions between shade trees and coffee/cacao are dependent upon site conditions (soil/climate), component selection (species/varieties/provenances), belowground and aboveground characteristics of the trees and crops, and management practices. On optimal sites, coffee can be grown without shade using high agrochemical inputs. However, economic evaluations, which include off-site impacts such as ground water contamination, are needed to judge the desirability of this approach. Moreover, standard silvicultural practices for closed plantations need to be adapted for open-grown trees within coffee/cacao plantations. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Financial returns, stability and risk of cacao-plantain-timber agroforestry systems in Central America

Diversification of agroecosystems has long been recognized as a sound strategy to cope with price and crop yield variability, thus increasing farm income stability and lowering financial risk. In this study, the financial returns, stability and risk of six cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) – laurel (Cordia alliodora (R&P) Oken) – plantain (Musa AAB) agroforestry systems, and the corresponding monocultures, were compared. Production and cost data were obtained from an on-going eight-year old experiment. The agroforestry systems included a traditional system and a replacement series between cacao (278, 370, 556, 741 and 833 plants ha^–1) and plantain (833, 741, 556, 370 and 278 plants ha^–1) with a constant laurel population (timber tree; 69 trees ha^–1). An ex-post analysis was conducted using experimental and secondary data to build a simulation model over a 12-year period under different price assumptions. The probability distribution functions for the three commodity prices were modeled and simulated through time, accounting for their possible autocorrelation and non-normality. The expected net incomes from the agroforestry systems were considerably higher than from monocultures. The agroforestry systems were also less risky. Agroforestry systems with proportionally more cacao than plantain were less risky, but also less stable. The timber component (C. alliodora) was a key factor in reducing farmer's financial risks. Methodologically, the study illustrates a technique to evaluate both expected returns and the corresponding financial risks to obtain a complete, comparable profile of alternative systems. It shows the need to allow for the possibility of non-normality in the statistical distributions of the variables entering a financial risk and return analysis.     

Allometric models for estimating aboveground biomass of shade trees and coffee bushes grown together

Allometric models for dominant shade tree species and coffee plants (Coffea arabica) were developed for coffee agroforestry systems in Matagalpa, Nicaragua. The studied shade tree species were Cordia alliodora, Juglans olanchana, Inga tonduzzi and I. punctata. The models predict aboveground biomass based on diameter at breast height (for trees), and the stem diameter at a height of 15 cm and plant height (for coffee plants). In addition, the specific gravity of the studied species was determined.The total aboveground biomass of the shade trees varied between 3.5 and 386 kg per tree, and between 0.005 and 2.8 kg per plant for coffee. The aboveground biomass components (foliage, branch, and stem) are closely related with diameter at breast height (r > 0.75). The best-fit models for aboveground biomass of the shade trees were logarithmic, with adjusted R ² between 0.71 and 0.97. In coffee plants, a high correlation was found (r = 0.84) with the stem diameter at 15 cm height, and the best-fit model was logarithmic, as well. The mean specific gravity was 0.52 (± 0.11) for trees and 0.82 (± 0.06) for coffee plants.     

Carbon sequestration through agroforestry in indigenous communities of Chiapas, Mexico

The importance of agroforestry systems as carbon sinks has recently been recognized due to the need of climate change mitigation. The objective of this study was to compare the carbon content in living biomass, soil (0–10, 10–20, 20–30 cm in depth), dead organic matter between a set of non-agroforestry and agroforestry prototypes in Chiapas, Mexico where the carbon sequestration programme called Scolel’te has been carried out. The prototypes compared were: traditional maize (rotational prototype with pioneer native trees evaluated in the crop period), Taungya (maize with timber trees), improved fallow, traditional fallow (the last three rotational prototypes in the crop-free period), Inga-shade-organic coffee, polyculture-shade organic coffee, polyculture-non-organic coffee, pasture without trees, pasture with live fences, and pasture with scattered trees. Taungya and improved fallow were designed agroforestry prototypes, while the others were reproduced traditional systems. Seventy-nine plots were selected in three agro-climatic zones. Carbon in living biomass, dead biomass, and soil organic matter was measured in each plot. Results showed that carbon in living biomass and dead organic matter were different according to prototype; while soil organic carbon and total carbon were influenced mostly by the agro-climatic zone (P < 0.01). Carbon density in the high tropical agro-climatic zone (1,000 m) was higher compared to the intermediate and low tropical agro-climatic zones (600 and 200 m, respectively, P < 0.01). All the systems contained more carbon than traditional maize and pastures without trees. Silvopastoral systems, improved fallow, Taungya and coffee systems (especially polyculture-shade coffee and organic coffee) have the potential to sequester carbon via growing trees. Agroforestry systems could also contribute to carbon sequestration and reducing emissions when burning is avoided. The potential of organic coffee to maintain carbon in soil and to reduce emissions from deforestation and ecosystem degradation (REDD) is discussed.     

Multipurpose shade trees in coffee and cocoa plantations in Côte d'Ivoire

Coffee and cocoa are the main cash crops of Côte d'Ivoire. They are mainly produced by small farmers in a rather extensive way. The shade trees used are mostly wild forest species yielding many different products. In the Baoulé region, an inventory of those trees and their, often multiple, uses was established. Of the 41 tree species, 22 are used as firewood and 16 as timber for local constructions. Nineteen furnish pharmaceutical products for traditional medicine and 15 have edible parts (fruits, leaves, flowers, palm wine). Those products are essential in daily life and play an important role in the local economy. The plantations can therefore be considered as agroforestry systems. Part of the world-wide research on coffee and cocoa should be reoriented to such systems, adapted to small farmer holdings, where few inputs are available and conditions of production are less favourable.Translated with modifications from: Les arbres d'ombrage et leurs utilisations dans les plantations de café et de cacao dans le sud du V-Baoulé, Côte d'Ivoire, J. For. Suisse 143(2): 149–165, 1992.     

Litter production and nutrient cycling in coffee (Coffea arabica) or cacao (Theobroma cacao) plantations with shade trees

The relative importance of N fixation, organic material inputs and nutrient inputs in litterfall, as justifications for including shade trees in plantations of coffee or cacao, is discussed. According to existing data, N fixation by leguminous shade trees does not exceed 60 kg.N/ha/a. However, these trees contribute 5,000–10,000 kg. organic material/ha/a.Comparisons are made between the leguminous shade tree Erythrina poeppigiana and the non-leguminous timber tree Cordia alliodora. The former, when pruned 2 or 3 times/a., can return to the litter layer the same amount of nutrients that are applied to coffee plantations via inorganic fertilizers, even at the highest recommended rates for Costa Rica of 270 kg.N, 60 kg.P, 150 kg.K/ha/a. The annual nutrient return in this litterfall represents 90–100 percent of the nutrient store in above-ground biomass of E. poeppigiana, and hence the consequences of competition with the crop should not be a serious limitation. In the case of C. alliodora, which is not pruned, nutrient storage in the tree stems, especially of K, is a potential limiting factor to both crop and tree productivity.It is concluded that, in fertilized plantations of cacao and coffee, litter productivity is a more important shade tree characteristic than N fixation.An early version of this review was presented at the CATIE-IUFRO meeting Los Arboles de Uso Multiple en Sistemas Agroforestales, June 1985, Turrialba, Costa Rica.     

Traditional tree crop based agroforestry in coffee producing areas of Harerge,Eastern Ethiopia

A preliminary survey of seven coffee producing Awrajas (Provinces) in eastern Ethiopia revealed that there is a traditional tree crop based agroforestry system being practised by the farmers. Coffee (C. arabica) was found to grow under the shade of several trees, 16 species, usually intercropped by one or several, a total of 15, important grain, fruit, vegetable, stimulant, oil-seed and spice crops. The majority of the trees, 69%, is leguminous and Ficus spp. The system is characterized by the integration of crops, livestock and sometimes apiculture. Recommendations are made for future studies.     

Effects of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Inga densiflora</Emphasis> on the microclimate of coffee (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Coffea arabica</Emphasis> L.) and overall biomass under optimal growing conditions in Costa Rica

The advantages of associating shade trees in coffee agroforestry systems (AFS) are generally thought to be restricted mostly to poor soil and sub-optimal ecological conditions for coffee cultivation whereas their role in optimal conditions remains controversial. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate, under the optimal coffee cultivation conditions of the Central Valley of Costa Rica, the impact of Inga densiflora, a very common shade tree in Central America, on the microclimate, yield and vegetative development of shaded coffee in comparison to coffee monoculture (MC). Maximum temperature of shaded coffee leaves was reduced by up to 5°C relative to coffee leaf temperature in MC. The minimum air temperature at night was 0.5°C higher in AFS than air temperature in MC demonstrating the buffering effects of shade trees. As judged by the lower relative extractable water (REW) in the deep soil layers during the dry season, water use in AFS was higher than in MC. Nevertheless, competition for water between coffee and associated trees was assumed to be limited as REW in the 0–150 cm soil layer was always higher than 0.3 in shaded coffee compared to 0.4 in monoculture. Coffee production was quite similar in both systems during the establishment of shade trees, however a yield decrease of 30% was observed in AFS compared to MC with a decrease in radiation transmittance to less than 40% during the latter years in the absence of an adequate shade tree pruning. As a result of the high contribution (60%) of shade trees to overall biomass, permanent aerial biomass accumulation in AFS amounted to two times the biomass accumulated in MC after 7 years. Thus provided an adequate pruning, Inga-shaded plantations appeared more advantageous than MC in optimal conditions, especially considering the fact that coffee AFS provides high quality coffee, farmers’ revenue diversification and environmental benefits.     

Nutrient cycling in two traditional Central American agroforestry systems

A preliminary nutrient cycling study quantified total and temporal nutrient inputs via litterfall and pruning residues in two agroforestry systems: (1) Coffea arabica (perennial crop)-Erythrina poeppigiana (leguminous shade tree); and (2) C. arabica-E. poeppigiana-Cordia alliodora with emphasis on the effect of the timber tree C. alliodora. The total annual input of litterfall plus pruning residues was similar in both associations. Total annual input from E. poeppigiana was less than half in the association with C. alliodora than without, but the litterfall from this latter species compensated for the loss. Large differences in the total annual nutrient input of K, Ca and Mg was found between associations, but not for N or P. The amount of nutrients recycled by the associated trees reached the recommended level of fertilizer required for coffee production. The inclusion of C. alliodora within the C. arabica-E. poeppigiana association resulted in a more evenly distributed annual nutrient input.     

Allometric relationships of frequently used shade tree species in cacao agroforestry systems in Sulawesi, Indonesia

Shade trees play an important role within agroforestry systems by influencing radiation and wind regimes as well as nutrient and hydrological cycling. However, there is a lack of quantitative assessments of their functions. One of the reasons is the rare information on structural characteristics of shade tree species. Therefore, the aim of this study is to provide basic information on the structure of frequently used shade tree species for the implementation of models simulating the ecosystem processes in agroforestry systems. The investigation of the shade trees was conducted at two cacao agroforestry sites on Sulawesi, Indonesia. The measurements of the main structural parameters: diameter at breast height, tree height, trunk height, crown length and crown radius were carried out for the shade tree species Aleurites moluccana, Cocos nucifera and Gliricidia sepium. For data collection, the National Forest Inventory Field Manual Template by FAO (2004) was applied. Based on this information allometric functions were derived for the correspondent shade tree species. The best significant relationships were obtained for the height-crown length relationship of the dicotyledonous tree species’ A. moluccana and G. sepium with a coefficient of determination r² = 0.925 and r² = 0.738, respectively, and the height-crown length relationship of the monocotyledonous palm C. nucifera with r² = 0.663. The transferability tests ‘analysis of covariance’ and ‘homogeneity of slopes’ have shown that the obtained allometric functions are also applicable to other cacao agroforestry systems of the region.     

Sustainable timber production from uneven-aged shade stands of Cordia alliodora in small coffee farms

A model was developed to estimate the stable timber output from shade stands of Cordia alliodora in coffee farms. The model predicts, for stand densities between 120–290 trees/ ha, timber yields of 9–24 and 6–15 m³/ha/yr of total and commercial overbark volumes, respectively. Current harvest rates in four sample farms are below these figures.The model is used to describe the transient trajectory (in terms of timber output over time) of Cordia alliodora stands with different initial DBH distributions. Practical recommendations are derived as to how farmers should manage their trees to achieve stable timber outputs in the shortest time possible.     

Carbon stocks in coffee agroforests and mixed dry tropical forests in the western highlands of Guatemala

Tree removal in Latin American coffee agroforestry systems has been widespread due to complex and interacting factors that include fluctuating international markets, government-supported agricultural policies, and climate change. Despite shade tree removal and land conversion risks, there is currently no widespread policy incentive encouraging the maintenance of shade trees for the benefit of carbon sequestration. In facilitation of such incentives, an understanding of the capacity of coffee agroforests to store carbon relative to tropical forests must be developed. Drawing on ecological inventories conducted in 2007 and 2010 in the Lake Atitlán region of Guatemala, this research examines the carbon pools of smallholder coffee agroforests (CAFs) as they compare to a mixed dry forest (MDF) system. Data from 61 plots, covering a total area of 2.24 ha, was used to assess the aboveground, coarse root, and soil carbon reservoirs of the two land-use systems. Results of this research demonstrate the total carbon stocks of CAFs to range from 74.0 to 259.0 Megagrams (Mg)?C ha^?1 with a mean of 127.6?±?6.6 (SE)?Mg?C ha^?1. The average carbon stocks of CAFs was significantly lower than estimated for the MDF (198.7?±?32.1?Mg?C?ha^?1); however, individual tree and soil pools were not significantly different suggesting that agroforest shade trees play an important role in facilitating carbon sequestration and soil conservation. This research demonstrates the need for conservation-based initiatives which recognize the carbon sequestration benefits of coffee agroforests alongside natural forest systems.