Physical and chemical properties of a sandy loam receiving animal manure, mineral fertilizer or no fertilizer for 90 years

Ninety years after the start of the Askov long-term fertilization experiment on sandy loam, bulk soil was taken from the 0–20 cm and 30–35 cm depths of unfertilized (UNF), animal-manure (FYM) treated and mineral-fertilized (NPK) plots and analysed for textural composition, carbon content, pH, CEC, particle density and plasticity limits. Undisturbed soil cores (100 cm³) from the 8–12 cm layer were brought to six different matric potentials and subjected to confined uniaxial compression, drop-cone penetration and annulus shear tests. Water-retention curves based on seven matric potentials were produced for undisturbed cores from the 8–12 and 30–35 cm layers. In the field, in situ shear strength of plough-layer soil was determined by a vane shear tester and a torsional shear box. FYM and NPK treatments increased the soil organic carbon content by 23 and 11% of the amount in UNF, respectively. Corresponding increases observed in CEC were 17 and 11%. The water content at the lower and upper plastic limits both decreased from FYM to NPK to UNF. Soil bulk density in the 0-20 cm layer was reduced in FYM and NPK treatments relative to UNF, whereas the volume of soil pores larger than 30 μm was unaffected by past fertilization. Soil receiving animal manure showed the greatest soil strength when exposed to annulus shear, drop-cone penetration and confined uniaxial compression tests, Shear strength measurements indicated that the UNF sandy loam soil reacted like a sand, the increase in soil strength upon drying primarily being due to increased internal friction. In contrast, soil from FYM and NPK treatments showed reactions typical of a loamy soil, the increase in soil strength during drying being caused by increased cohesion in the soil matrix. The field tests employed were unable to detect the management-induced differences in soil physical parameters found in the laboratory tests. This study shows that physical soil properties related to conditions for tillage and traffic, to crop development and erosion are significantly influenced by differences in soil organic matter levels resulting from contrasting methods of fertilizer management. Exhausting a loamy soil by long-term lack of fertilizer application severely affects the physical properties of the soil.     

有机无机肥长期施用对潮土团聚体及其有机碳含量的影响

用湿筛法和密度分级相结合的方法,将土壤区分为不同粒径团聚体,并进一步把团聚体细分成不同组分,系统比较了有机无机肥长期施用对潮土及其团聚体中有机C含量的影响。结果表明,潮土团聚体以53～250μm为主,有机肥长期施用显著提高了250～2000μm团聚体数量,降低了53～250μm团聚体的比例。无机肥施用增加了各粒径团聚体有机C含量,但没有改变团聚体的比例。团聚体中有机C以细颗粒有机C(fine iPOM)为主,有机肥施用显著增加了矿物态有机C含量,并通过增加250～2000μm团聚体中细颗粒有机C(fine iPOM)和矿物态有机C比例来提高土壤有机C含量。无机肥则通过比较均匀地增加团聚体中各组分有机C含量来提高土壤有机C水平。因此,有机肥和无机肥在潮土上增加土壤有机质含量的机制存在明显差异。     

Seasonal differences in tillage draught on a sandy loam soil with long‐term additions of animal manure and mineral fertilizers

Energy requirements for soil tillage are closely linked to soil properties, such as clay, water and soil organic carbon (SOC) contents. Long‐term application of inorganic fertilizer and organic amendments affects SOC content but little is known about seasonal differences in tillage draught requirements of soils subject to contrasting nutrient management regimes. We assessed autumn and spring tillage draught following harvest of early‐sown and timely sown winter wheat grown on a sandy loam in the Askov Long‐Term Experiment on Animal Manure and Mineral Fertilizers. Draught force was related to soil texture, soil water and SOC content, shear strength and bulk density, nutrient management, and yield of the preceding winter wheat. Contents of clay and SOC ranged from 8.9 to 10.6% and from 0.98 to 1.36%, respectively. In the autumn and spring, SOC normalized by clay content explained 38 and 5% of the variation in specific draught, respectively. Specific draught did not differ significantly among individual fertilization treatments. SOC was closely correlated with clay and water contents and bulk density, and with yield of the preceding wheat. Draught force was significantly smaller in the spring than in the autumn. In the autumn when soils were drier (?700 hPa), tillage draught was correlated with several soil characteristics, whereas water content was the dominating parameter in the spring when soils were wetter (?100 hPa). The range of SOC contents observed in this study aligns with that observed in Danish sandy loams under intensive cultivation, and within this range, SOC per se had little effect on draught requirements.     

Soil sulphur status following long-term annual application of animal manure and mineral fertilizers

 In agricultural systems with low S inputs, crops rely on the release of S from organic forms in the soil. In the Askov long-term experiments, started in 1894 on both sandy and loamy soils, soil S status following long-term application of animal manure and mineral fertilizers was investigated in the growing season of 1995. In a field trial with oil-seed rape (Brassica napus, L.) soil analysis, leaf tissue analysis, yield and S removal in plant material was used to characterize differences in availability of soil S. One half of all plots received 63 kg S ha^–1 as gypsum. Long-term fertilization with animal manure or NPK fertilizer increased the content of soil organic C in both soils and of organic S in the sandy soil compared with unfertilized plots. Although dry matter yields were unaffected, the S uptake in harvested crop parts increased considerably after S application. The amounts of N and S in harvested seeds and straw were closely related, but the N : S ratio decreased when S was applied. Soil and plant analyses both indicated that critical levels of S concentrations were reached, and that S application was capable of raising S concentrations well above the critical level. Because no additional mineralization from residual organic S took place, it was concluded that the residual S effect from long-term annual applications of animal manure or mineral fertilizers did not significantly increase the level of soil S available for crops with a short growing season, such as oil-seed rape. Received: 9 January 1998     

Effect of biochar application rate on soil physical and hydraulic properties of a sandy loam

Biochar is used as a soil amendment for improving soil quality and enhancing carbon sequestration. In this study, a loamy sand soil was amended at different rates (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% v/v) of biochar, and its physical and hydraulic properties were analyzed, including particle density, bulk density, porosity, infiltration, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and volumetric water content. The wilting rate of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) grown in soil amended with various levels of biochar was evaluated on a scale of 0–10. Statistical analyses were conducted using linear regression. The results showed that bulk density decreased linearly (R² = 0.997) from 1.325 to 0.363 g cm^?3 while the particle density decreased (R² = 0.915) from 2.65 to 1.60 g cm^?3 with increased biochar amendment, with porosity increasing (R² = 0.994) from 0.500 to 0.773 cm³ cm^?3. The mean volumetric water content ranged from 3.90 to 14.00 cm³ cm^?3, while the wilting rate of tomato ranged from 4.67 to 9.50, respectively, for the non-amended soil and 100% biochar-amended soil. These results strongly suggest positive improvement of soil physical and hydraulic properties following addition of biochar amendment.     

长期施有机肥与缺素施肥对潮土微生物活性的影响

利用中国科学院封丘农业生态国家实验站潮士农田生态系统养分平衡长期定位试验地,研究长期施有机肥或缺索施肥对农田土壤呼吸强度及酶活性的影响.结果发现,与不施肥对照(CK)相比.施肥处理均不同程度地提高了土壤的呼吸强度及转化酶、脲酶与磷酸酶活性;从N、P、K平衡施肥角度比较,施有机肥[OM)与有机无机配施(1/20M+1/2NPK)的效果均显著高于施无机肥(p<0.05);从缺素施肥角度分析,缺P显著低于NPK处理(p<0.05),缺N次之,缺K影响较小.结果表明,长期配施有机肥更有利于提高潮土的微生物活性,长期缺施P肥最不利于保育潮土的微生物学质量.     

Using the simplified falling head technique to detect temporal changes in field-saturated hydraulic conductivity at the surface of a sandy loam soil

Determining temporal changes in field-saturated hydraulic conductivity (K_fs) is important for understanding and modeling hydrological phenomena at the field scale. Little is known about temporal variability of K_fs values measured at permanent sampling points. In this investigation, the simplified falling head (SFH) technique was used for an approximately 2-year period to determine temporal changes in K_fs at 11 permanent sampling points established at the surface of a sandy loam soil. Additional K_fs measurements were obtained by the single-ring pressure infiltrometer (PI) technique to also compare the SFH and PI techniques. The lowest mean values of K_fs, M(K_fs), were detected in December and January (20.5 ≤ M(K_fs) ≤ 146.2 mm h⁻¹), whereas higher results (190.5 ≤ M(K_fs) ≤ 951.9 mm h⁻¹) were obtained in the other months of the year. The K_fs values were higher and less variable in the dry soil (θ_i ≤ 0.21 m³ m⁻³, M(K_fs) = 340.6 mm h⁻¹, CV(K_fs) = 106%) than in the wet one (θ_i > 0.21 m³ m⁻³, M(K_fs) = 78.4 mm h⁻¹, CV(K_fs) = 185%). Both wet and dry soil were less conductive at the end of the study period than at the beginning one but a more appreciable change was detected for the dry soil (K_fs decreasing by 83.4%) than for the wet one (K_fs decreasing by 63.0%). The simple SFH technique yielded K_fs results similar to the more laborious and time-consuming PI technique (i.e., mean values differing at the most by a factor of two). It was concluded that (i) the soil water content was an important factor affecting the K_fs results obtained in a relatively coarse-textured soil, (ii) the impact of time from the beginning of the experiment on the saturated hydraulic conductivity was larger for a repeated sampling of dry soil than of wet soil and (iii) the SFH technique yielded reliable K_fs results in a relatively short period of time without the need for extensive instrumentation or analytical methodology.     

Aging effects of organic and inorganic fertilizers on phosphorus fractionation in a calcareous sandy loam soil

In most arid and semiarid soils, naturally occurring phosphorus(P) is a major yield-limiting plant nutrient. In this study, to investigate the effects of organic(OP) and inorganic P(IP) sources on P fractionation, a calcareous sandy loam alkaline soil was fertilized with OP and IP fertilizers at low(80 mg P kg~(-1) soil) and high(160 mg P kg~(-1) soil) application rates. Three combinations of OP and IP(i.e., 75% OP + 25% IP, 50% OP + 50% IP, and 25% OP + 75% IP) were applied at low and high application rates,respectively, followed by soil aging for 21 d. Soil samples were collected after 1, 2, 3, 7, and 21 d and subjected to sequential extraction to analyze soluble and exchangeable, Fe-and Al-bound, Ca-bound, and residual P fractions. The soluble and exchangeable P fraction significantly increased up to 24.3%, whereas the Ca-bound fraction decreased up to 40.7% in the soils receiving 75% OP + 25% IP and 50% OP + 50% IP, respectively, compared with the control(receiving no P fertilizer). However, the transformation of P fractions was influenced by aging time. Addition of P sources caused instant changes in different P fractions, which then tended to decline with aging time. Change in soil p H was the limiting factor in controlling P availability. At high application rate, the OP source significantly increased soil P availability compared with the IP source with soil aging. Depending on P fractionation, a proper combination of OP and IP fertilizers, as long-term slow and instant P-releasing sources for plant uptake, respectively, may be a sustainable strategy to meet crop P requirements in the arid and semiarid soils.     

长期施用化肥和农家肥对土壤化学性质和作物产量的影响

A long-term fertiliztion experiment was carried out in an experimental field in Lyczyn near Warsaw,Poland.Application ofmineral fertilizers ,especially Nfertilizer with and without farmyard manure accel-erated the eacidification process of the soil.Application of 1.6 t CaO ha^-1 every four years was essential to maintenance of the soil pHKCl at 5.5-6.6 and base saturation degree above 60% Application of 50 t farmyard manur ha^-1 every 4 years,whih contained 46 kg P and 240 kg K,was sufficient to maintain boh the K and P fertility of the soil.Besides,it was beneficial to alleviating soil acidifcation. As a result of long-term unbalanced fertilization,yield responses to N,P and K fertilizers incereased significantly with time.the efficiency of N from farmyard manure was found to be comparable to that of N fertilizer during 1988-1991.     

Effects of animal manure and mineral fertilizer on the total carbon and nitrogen contents of soil size fractions

Summary Soil was sampled in autumn 1984 in the 132 field (sandy loam soil) of the Askov long-term experiments (started in 1894) and fractionated according to particle size using ultrasonic dispersion and sedimentation in water. The unmanured plot and plots given equivalent amounts of N (1923–1984 annual average, 121 kg N/ha) in either animal manure or mineral fertilizer were sampled to a depth of 15 cm, fractionated and analysed for C and N. Mineral fertilizer and animal manure increased the C and N content of whole soil, clay (<2 m) and silt (2–20 m) size fractions relative to unmanured samples, while the C content of the sand size fractions (fine sand 1, 20–63 m; fine sand 2, 63–200 m; coarse sand, 200–2000 m) was less affected. Clay contained 58% and 65°70 of the soil C and N, respectively. Corresponding values for silt were 30% and 26%, while sand accounted for 10% of the soil C. Fertilization did not influence this distribution pattern. The C : N ratio of the silt organic matter (14.3) was higher and that of clay (10.6) lower than whole-soil C:N ratios (12.0). Fertilization did not influence clay and silt C : N ratios. Animal manure caused similar relative increases in the organic matter content of clay and silt size fractions (36%). In contrast, mineral fertilizer only increased the organic matter content of silt by 21% and that of clay by 14%.     

Effect of tillage and crop rotations on pore size distribution and soil hydraulic conductivity in sandy clay loam soil of the Indian Himalayas

Tillage management can affect crop growth by altering the pore size distribution, pore geometry and hydraulic properties of soil. In the present communication, the effect of different tillage management viz., conventional tillage (CT), minimum tillage (MT) and zero-tillage (ZT) and different crop rotations viz. [(soybean–wheat (S–W), soybean–lentil (S–L) and soybean–pea (S–P)] on pore size distribution and soil hydraulic conductivities [saturated hydraulic conductivity (K_sat) and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity {k(h)}] of a sandy clay loam soil was studied after 4 years prior to the experiment. Soil cores were collected after 4 year of the experiment at an interval of 75 mm up to 300 mm soil depth for measuring soil bulk density, soil water retention constant (b), pore size distribution, K_sat and k(h). Nine pressure levels (from 2 to 1500 kPa) were used to calculate pore size distribution and k(h). It was observed that b values at all the studied soil depths were higher under ZT than those observed under CT irrespective of the crop rotations. The values of soil bulk density observed under ZT were higher in 0–75 mm soil depth in all the crop rotations. But, among the crop rotations, soils under S–P and S–L rotations showed relatively lower bulk density values than S–W rotation. Average values of the volume fraction of total porosity with pores <7.5 μm in diameter (effective pores for retaining plant available water) were 0.557, 0.636 and 0.628 m³ m⁻³ under CT, MT and ZT; and 0.592, 0.610 and 0.626 m³ m⁻³ under S–W, S–L and S–P, respectively. In contrast, the average values of the volume fraction of total porosity with pores >150 μm in diameter (pores draining freely with gravity) were 0.124, 0.096 and 0.095 m³ m⁻³ under CT, MT and ZT; and 0.110, 0.104 and 0.101 m³ m⁻³ under S–W, S–L and S–P, respectively. Saturated hydraulic conductivity values in all the studied soil depths were significantly greater under ZT than those under CT (range from 300 to 344 mm day⁻¹). The observed k(h) values at 0–75 mm soil depth under ZT were significantly higher than those computed under CT at all the suction levels, except at −10, −100 and −400 kPa suction. Among the crop rotations, S–P rotation recorded significantly higher k(h) values than those under S–W and S–L rotations up to −40 kPa suction. The interaction effects of tillage and crop rotations affecting the k(h) values were found significant at all the soil water suctions. Both S–L and S–P rotations resulted in better soil water retention and transmission properties under ZT.     

Slurry-application implement tine modification of soil hydraulic properties under different soil water content conditions for silt–clay loam soils

Tillage action associated with liquid slurry application systems/management practices can modify soil infiltration properties. The degree or nature of such modification will depend largely on the type of tillage implement used, and the soil conditions at time of tillage activity. The specific objective of this study is to evaluate differences in soil infiltration properties, as measured using pressure infiltrometers and Guelph permeameters, resulting from the immediate tine action of two commonly used slurry application tillage implements (Kongskilde Vibro-Flex (S-tine) and the AerWay SSD (rolling aerator-type tine)) over a variety of silt–clay loam soil water content conditions. The results indicated that there were consistent negative correlations between field saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil water content for all tine-disturbed and undisturbed soil treatments. For Kongskilde, field-saturated hydraulic conductivity was, on average, lower in tine-influenced furrow bottoms, relative to those measured in undisturbed conditions at similar depths for most water content conditions. Generally, the Kongskilde tine-action reduced macropore-based infiltration in the bottom of the furrow for most soil conditions, albeit, this effect was most pronounced at the higher soil water contents. For AerWay, the tine-disturbed soils had generally higher field saturated hydraulic conductivities than undisturbed soil treatments over the observed water content range. This effect was manifested to a greater degree at higher, relative to lower observed water contents.     

Effect of organic manures,crop residues and green manure (Sesbania aculeata) on nitrogen and phosphorus transformations in a sandy loam at field capacity and under waterlogged conditions

Summary The influence of the water regime on mineralization and immobilization of N and P was investigated in a calcareous sandy loam incubated with cattle, poultry and green manure (Sesbania aculeata), and wheat and rice straw in a pot experiment. At field capacity, N released from poultry and green manure during the first 4 weeks of incubation was 45% and 59%, respectively. During the next 12 weeks, only around 40% more organic N was mineralized from both sources. In contrast, addition of cattle manure resulted in a period of net N immobilization lasting up to 4 weeks. By the end of 16 weeks of incubation only about 19010 of the added N was mineralized. High rates of N immobilization were observed during the first 4 weeks of incubation of rice or wheat straw with C/N ratios of 78 and 85, respectively. The N mineralization kinetics of poultry and green manure and of untreated soil showed an initial fast reaction followed by a slow release of inorganic N and could be described by two simultaneous first-order reactions. Under waterlogged conditions mineralized N was lost simultaneously in significant amounts possibly through nitrification — denitrification reactions. At field capacity, the largest amount of Olsen P was accumulated in the soil amended with poultry manure, followed by cattle manure. Results from other treatments did not differ much from those of the untreated soil. About 15% of P from poultry manure was mineralized during the 1st week of incubation. In contrast to the field-capacity moisture regime, marked increases in Olsen P in the soils amended with green manure and crop residues were observed under water-logged conditions.     

Biosolubilization of phosphorus from rock phosphate and other P fertilizers in response to phosphate solubilizing bacteria and poultry manure in a silt loam calcareous soil

‘Phosphate solubilizing bacteria' (PSBs) are able to release unavailable P from native and applied P sources into plant‐available soil pool through their solubilizing and acidifying effects. The effects of three indigenous and one exotic PSBs on P solubilization from different P sources, plant biomass production, and P‐uptake efficiency of maize (Zea mays L.) were examined in an incubation and greenhouse study. For incubation study, surface (0–15 cm) soil was collected from an arable field (Inceptisols) and amended with rock phosphate (RP), single superphosphate (SSP), poultry manure (PM), and RP+PM with and without PSBs. The amended soil was incubated in the control environment at 25 ± 2°C for a total of a 100‐d period to establish relative potential rate of P solubilization of added P sources. A complementary greenhouse experiment was conducted in pots by growing maize as a test crop. Growth characteristics, P‐uptake, and P‐utilization efficiency (PUE) were determined. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria generated a solubilization effect on different P sources by releasing more P into plant‐available soil pool, i.e., 14.0–18.3 µg g^?1 in RP, 5.0–9.9 µg g^?1 in SSP, 1.4–4.4 µg g^?1 in PM, and 4.5–7.8 µg g^?1 in RP+PM compared to their sole application without PSBs. The available P from inorganic SSP declined continuously from the mineral pool (after day 30) and at the end 40% of applied P was unaccounted for. However, P losses were reduced to 28 and 27% when PSBs (PSB₁ and PSB₃) were applied with superphosphate treatments. In the absence of PSBs, the recoveries of applied P (in soil) from RP, SSP, PM and RP+PM were 4, 25, 9, and 12%, respectively, those had been increased to 14, 30, 12 and 15% in the presence of PSBs. Similarly, the plant biomass in RP+PSBs treatments compared to the RP without PSBs increased between 12–30% in first sampling (30 DAG) and 13–30% in the second sampling (60 DAG). The P utilization efficiency (PUE) in plants supplemented with PSBs was 20–73% higher compared to those without PSBs. The detection of oxalic and gluconic acids in culture medium treated with PSBs (7.8–25.0 and 25–90 mg L^?1, respectively) confirmed the production of organic acids by the indigenous bacterial isolates. This study indicate that low P recovery both in plant and soil can likely be improved by using indigenous PSBs and organic amendment poultry manure, which allowed a more efficient capture of P released due to P solubilization.     

Cattle manure and inorganic nitrogen fertilizer application effects on soil hydraulic properties and maize yield of two soils of Murewa district,Zimbabwe

This study set out to determine the effects of cattle manure and inorganic N‐fertilizer application on the hydraulic properties and maize yield of a clay and sandy soil in a smallholder farming area of Zimbabwe. Four fields classified as homefields (HF: more fertile and closer to homesteads) and outfields (OF: less fertile and further from the homesteads) were selected on clay and sandy soil. They were subjected to four treatments, control (no fertility amendment), 5, 15 and 25 t/ha cattle manure + 100 kg/ha N (as ammonium nitrate) for 7 years. A two‐way randomized complete block design was used with fertility and field type as the two factors. Clay soil hydraulic properties, which included density of macropores with a diameter >300 μm, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, steady‐state infiltration rate, moisture retention under low suction and maize grain yield, were significantly improved (P < 0.05) by fertility management compared with the control and were generally comparable between the HF and OF. Fertility management significantly improved maize grain yield on sandy soils but did not enhance hydraulic parameters, thereby indicating poor responsiveness in structural build‐up. On the other hand, significantly different hydraulic parameters between the sandy soil HF and OF suggested effects of other factors not related to soil fertility and field type treatments. We therefore concluded that application of a high rate (25 t/ha) of cattle manure and inorganic N‐fertilizer is beneficial for fertility restoration to the degraded OFs with associated comparable hydraulic properties on HFs and OFs on clay soil, unlike on sandy soil.     

Long-term yield trend and sustainability of rainfed soybean–wheat system through farmyard manure application in a sandy loam soil of the Indian Himalayas

A long-term (30 years) soybean–wheat experiment was conducted at Hawalbagh, Almora, India to study the effects of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients on grain yield trends of rainfed soybean (Glycine max)–wheat (Triticum aestivum) system and nutrient status (soil C, N, P and K) in a sandy loam soil (Typic Haplaquept). The unfertilized plot supported 0.56 Mg ha⁻¹ of soybean yield and 0.71 Mg ha⁻¹ of wheat yield (average yield of 30 years). Soybean responded to inorganic NPK application and the yield increased significantly to 0.87 Mg ha⁻¹ with NPK. Maximum yields of soybean (2.84 Mg ha⁻¹) and residual wheat (1.88 Mg ha⁻¹) were obtained in the plots under NPK + farmyard manure (FYM) treatment, which were significantly higher than yields observed under other treatments. Soybean yields in the plots under the unfertilized and the inorganic fertilizer treatments decreased with time, whereas yields increased significantly in the plots under N + FYM and NPK + FYM treatments. At the end of 30 years, total soil organic C (SOC) and total N concentrations increased in all the treatments. Soils under NPK + FYM-treated plots contained higher SOC and total N by 89 and 58% in the 0–45 cm soil layer, respectively, over that of the initial status. Hence, the decline in yields might be due to decline in available P and K status of soil. Combined use of NPK and FYM increased SOC, oxidizable SOC, total N, total P, Olsen P, and ammonium acetate exchangeable K by 37.8, 42.0, 20.8, 30.2, 25.0, and 52.7%, respectively, at 0–45 cm soil layer compared to application of NPK through inorganic fertilizers. However, the soil profiles under all the treatments had a net loss of nonexchangeable K, ranging from 172 kg ha⁻¹ under treatment NK to a maximum of 960 kg ha⁻¹ under NPK + FYM after 30 years of cropping. Depletion of available P and K might have contributed to the soybean yield decline in treatments where manure was not applied. The study also showed that although the combined NPK and FYM application sustained long-term productivity of the soybean–wheat system, increased K input is required to maintain soil nonexchangeable K level.     

Long‐term‐fertilization effects on soil organic carbon,physical properties,and wheat yield of a loess soil

The large dryland area of the Loess Plateau (China) is subject of developing strategies for a sustainable crop production, e.g., by modifications of nutrient management affecting soil quality and crop productivity. A 19 y long‐term experiment was employed to evaluate the effects of fertilization regimes on soil organic C (SOC) dynamics, soil physical properties, and wheat yield. The SOC content in the top 20 cm soil layer remained unchanged over time under the unfertilized plot (CK), whereas it significantly increased under both inorganic N, P, and K fertilizers (NPK) and combined manure (M) with NPK (MNPK) treatments. After 18 y, the SOC in the MNPK and NPK treatments remained significantly higher than in the control in the top 20 cm and top 10 cm soil layers, respectively. The MNPK‐treated soil retained significant more water than CK at tension ranges from 0 to 0.25 kPa and from 8 to 33 kPa for the 0–5 cm layer. The MNPK‐treated soil also retained markedly more water than the NPK‐treated and CK soils at tensions from 0 to 0.75 kPa and more water than CK from 100 to 300 kPa for the 10–15 cm layer. There were no significant differences of saturated hydraulic conductivity between three treatments both at 0–5 and 10–15 cm depths. In contrast, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in the MNPK plot was lower than in the CK plot at depths of 0–5 cm and 10–15 cm. On average, wheat yields were similar under MNPK and NPK treatments and significantly higher than under the CK treatment. Thus, considering soil‐quality conservation and sustainable crop productivity, reasonably combined application of NPK and organic manure is a better nutrient‐management option in this rainfed wheat–fallow cropping system.     

Spatial variability of physico-chemical properties and hydraulic characteristics of a gravelly calcareous soil

Due to the existence of gravelly soils and the lack of sufficient research on such soils, this study was carried out on a gravelly calcareous soil. Selected physico–chemical and hydraulic soil attributes were determined at 69 points on a nested-sampling design. Hydraulic characteristics including unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K _ψ) and sorptivity coefficient (S) at six applied tensions of 0 to 0.2 m, and sorptive number (α) and macroscopic capillary length (λ) at five applied tensions of 0.03 to 0.2 m were determined using a tension disc infiltrometer. Hydraulic and chemical soil attributes were the highest and the lowest variants, respectively. The maximum and minimum values for the coefficient of variation (CV) in all the measured physico-chemical and hydraulic soil attributes were obtained for α_0.2 and soil pH, respectively. Minimum, maximum, mean and variance values of K _ψ, S and α decreased as applied tension increased. Although the pattern was reversed for λ. The majority of soil attributes showed the spatial structure with dominant spherical and exponential models for physico-chemical and hydraulic attributes, respectively. Range values of semi-variograms were obtained between 4.6 m (for α_0.03) and 211 m (for clay, gravel content and soluble Mg). In general, range values were 99.60, 82.05 and 40.2 m for physical, chemical and hydraulic soil attributes, respectively, indicating that the physical soil attributes influenced neighboring values over greater distances than the other soil attributes. This enables soil scientists to use measured soil physical data over greater distances to estimate attributes in the unsampled locations.     

Short-term effects of biochar and gypsum on soil hydraulic properties and sodicity in a saline-alkali soil

Salt and sodicity of saline-alkali soil adversely affect the construction of ecological landscapes and negatively impact crop production. The reclamation potential of biochar (BC, wheat straw biochar applied at 1% by weight), gypsum (G, 0.4% by weight), and gypsum coupled with biochar (GBC) was examined in this laboratory-based study by evaluating their effects on a saline-alkali soil (silt loam) with no amendment as a control (CK). Saline ice and fresh water (simulated rainfall) were leached through soil columns to investigate changes in salt content, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), alkalinity, and pH of the leachate and the soil. Results showed that saturated water content and field water capacity (FWC) significantly increased by 4.4% and 5.6%, respectively, in the BC treatment after a short incubation time. Co-application of biochar and gypsum (GBC) increased soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) by 58.4%, which was also significantly higher than the sole addition. Electrical conductivity (EC) of the leachate decreased sharply after saline ice leaching; subsequent freshwater leaching accelerated the removal of the rest of the salts, irrespective of the amendment application. However, the application of gypsum (G and GB) significantly enhanced the removal of exchangeable Na+ and reduced leachate SAR. After leaching, the soil salt content decreased significantly for all treatments. The application of gypsum resulted in a significantly lower soil pH, exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), SAR, and alkalinity values than those recorded for the CK and BC treatments. These results demonstrated that the co-application of gypsum and biochar could improve saline-alkali soil hydraulic conductivity and decrease leaching-induced sodicity over a short period.