Evolutionary medicine: from dwarf model systems to healthy centenarians?

Restriction of the number of calories consumed extends longevity in many organisms. In rodents, caloric restriction decreases the levels of plasma glucose and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1) and postpones or attenuates cancer, immunosenescence, and inflammation without irreversible side effects. In organisms ranging from yeast to mice, mutations in glucose or IGF-I-like signaling pathways extend life-span but also cause glycogen or fat accumulation and dwarfism. This information suggests a new category of drugs that could prevent or postpone diseases of aging with few adverse effects.     

Requirement of NAD and SIR2 for life-span extension by calorie restriction in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Calorie restriction extends life-span in a wide variety of organisms. Although it has been suggested that calorie restriction may work by reducing the levels of reactive oxygen species produced during respiration, the mechanism by which this regimen slows aging is uncertain. Here, we mimicked calorie restriction in yeast by physiological or genetic means and showed a substantial extension in life-span. This extension was not observed in strains mutant for SIR2 (which encodes the silencing protein Sir2p) or NPT1 (a gene in a pathway in the synthesis of NAD, the oxidized form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). These findings suggest that the increased longevity induced by calorie restriction requires the activation of Sir2p by NAD.     

Regulation of yeast replicative life span by TOR and Sch9 in response to nutrients

Calorie restriction increases life span in many organisms, including the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. From a large-scale analysis of 564 single-gene-deletion strains of yeast, we identified 10 gene deletions that increase replicative life span. Six of these correspond to genes encoding components of the nutrient-responsive TOR and Sch9 pathways. Calorie restriction of tor1D or sch9D cells failed to further increase life span and, like calorie restriction, deletion of either SCH9 or TOR1 increased life span independent of the Sir2 histone deacetylase. We propose that the TOR and Sch9 kinases define a primary conduit through which excess nutrient intake limits longevity in yeast.     

Fat metabolism links germline stem cells and longevity in C. elegans

Fat metabolism, reproduction, and aging are intertwined regulatory axes; however, the mechanism by which they are coupled remains poorly understood. We found that germline stem cells (GSCs) actively modulate lipid hydrolysis in Caenorhabditis elegans, which in turn regulates longevity. GSC arrest promotes systemic lipolysis via induction of a specific fat lipase. Subsequently, fat mobilization is promoted and life span is prolonged. Constitutive expression of this lipase in fat storage tissue generates lean and long-lived animals. This lipase is a key factor in the lipid hydrolysis and increased longevity that are induced by decreased insulin signaling. These results suggest a link between C. elegans fat metabolism and longevity.     

Increase in activity during calorie restriction requires Sirt1

Sir2 (silent information regulator 2) is a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent deacetylase required for longevity due to calorie restriction in yeast and Drosophila. In mammals, calorie restriction induces a complex pattern of physiological and behavioral changes. Here we report that the mammalian Sir2 ortholog, Sirt1, is required for the induction of a phenotype by calorie restriction in mice.     

Mitochondrial dysfunction in the elderly: possible role in insulin resistance

Insulin resistance is a major factor in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes in the elderly. To investigate how insulin resistance arises, we studied healthy, lean, elderly and young participants matched for lean body mass and fat mass. Elderly study participants were markedly insulin-resistant as compared with young controls, and this resistance was attributable to reduced insulin-stimulated muscle glucose metabolism. These changes were associated with increased fat accumulation in muscle and liver tissue assessed by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and with a approximately 40% reduction in mitochondrial oxidative and phosphorylation activity, as assessed by in vivo 13C/31P NMR spectroscopy. These data support the hypothesis that an age-associated decline in mitochondrial function contributes to insulin resistance in the elderly.     

Continuous fatty acid oxidation and reduced fat storage in mice lacking acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2

Malonyl-coenzyme A (malonyl-CoA), generated by acetyl-CoA carboxylases ACC1 and ACC2, is a key metabolite in the regulation of energy homeostasis. Here, we show that Acc2-/- mutant mice have a normal life span, a higher fatty acid oxidation rate, and lower amounts of fat. In comparison to the wild type, Acc2-deficient mice had 10- and 30-fold lower levels of malonyl-CoA in heart and muscle, respectively. The fatty acid oxidation rate in the soleus muscle of the Acc2-/- mice was 30% higher than that of wild-type mice and was not affected by addition of insulin; however, addition of insulin to the wild-type muscle reduced fatty acid oxidation by 45%. The mutant mice accumulated 50% less fat in their adipose tissue than did wild-type mice. These results raise the possibility that pharmacological manipulation of ACC2 may lead to loss of body fat in the context of normal caloric intake.     

Mitotic division in pancreatic beta cells

Successful expansion of the islet cell mass occurs in genetically diabetic mice (C57 Bl/Ks-dbdb) following a period of dietary restriction, in the absence of a population of precursor cells. Differentiated cells that synthesize insulin retain the capability of undergoing mitotic division.     

Timing requirements for insulin/IGF-1 signaling in C. elegans

The insulin/IGF-1 (where IGF-1 is insulin-like growth factor-1) signaling pathway influences longevity, reproduction, and diapause in many organisms. Because of the fundamental importance of this system in animal physiology, we asked when during the animal's life it is required to regulate these different processes. We find that in Caenorhabditis elegans, the pathway acts during adulthood, to relatively advanced ages, to influence aging. In contrast, it regulates diapause during development. In addition, the pathway controls longevity and reproduction independently of one another. Together our findings show that life-span regulation can be dissociated temporally from phenotypes that might seem to decrease the quality of life.     

Aging, chromatin, and food restriction--connecting the dots

Model organisms such as yeast have proved exceptionally valuable for revealing new information about the molecular pathways involved in the aging of cells. In her Perspective, Campisi comments on new work showing that caloric restriction increases longevity in yeast by activating the SIR2 gene, which alters the compactness of chromatin and thus regulates gene expression (Lin et al.).     

Extended life-span conferred by cotransporter gene mutations in Drosophila

Aging is genetically determined and environmentally modulated. In a study of longevity in the adult fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, we found that five independent P-element insertional mutations in a single gene resulted in a near doubling of the average adult life-span without a decline in fertility or physical activity. Sequence analysis revealed that the product of this gene, named Indy (for I'm not dead yet), is most closely related to a mammalian sodium dicarboxylate cotransporter-a membrane protein that transports Krebs cycle intermediates. Indy was most abundantly expressed in the fat body, midgut, and oenocytes: the principal sites of intermediary metabolism in the fly. Excision of the P element resulted in a reversion to normal life-span. These mutations may create a metabolic state that mimics caloric restriction, which has been shown to extend life-span.     

Increased insulin sensitivity and obesity resistance in mice lacking the protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B gene

Protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B (PTP-1B) has been implicated in the negative regulation of insulin signaling. Disruption of the mouse homolog of the gene encoding PTP-1B yielded healthy mice that, in the fed state, had blood glucose concentrations that were slightly lower and concentrations of circulating insulin that were one-half those of their PTP-1B+/+ littermates. The enhanced insulin sensitivity of the PTP-1B-/- mice was also evident in glucose and insulin tolerance tests. The PTP-1B-/- mice showed increased phosphorylation of the insulin receptor in liver and muscle tissue after insulin injection in comparison to PTP-1B+/+ mice. On a high-fat diet, the PTP-1B-/- and PTP-1B+/- mice were resistant to weight gain and remained insulin sensitive, whereas the PTP-1B+/+ mice rapidly gained weight and became insulin resistant. These results demonstrate that PTP-1B has a major role in modulating both insulin sensitivity and fuel metabolism, thereby establishing it as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity.     

Defective lipolysis and altered energy metabolism in mice lacking adipose triglyceride lipase

Fat tissue is the most important energy depot in vertebrates. The release of free fatty acids (FFAs) from stored fat requires the enzymatic activity of lipases. We showed that genetic inactivation of adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) in mice increases adipose mass and leads to triacylglycerol deposition in multiple tissues. ATGL-deficient mice accumulated large amounts of lipid in the heart, causing cardiac dysfunction and premature death. Defective cold adaptation indicated that the enzyme provides FFAs to fuel thermogenesis. The reduced availability of ATGL-derived FFAs leads to increased glucose use, increased glucose tolerance, and increased insulin sensitivity. These results indicate that ATGL is rate limiting in the catabolism of cellular fat depots and plays an important role in energy homeostasis.     

Calorie restriction promotes mitochondrial biogenesis by inducing the expression of eNOS

Calorie restriction extends life span in organisms ranging from yeast to mammals. Here, we report that calorie restriction for either 3 or 12 months induced endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression and 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate formation in various tissues of male mice. This was accompanied by mitochondrial biogenesis, with increased oxygen consumption and adenosine triphosphate production, and an enhanced expression of sirtuin 1. These effects were strongly attenuated in eNOS null-mutant mice. Thus, nitric oxide plays a fundamental role in the processes induced by calorie restriction and may be involved in the extension of life span in mammals.     

Role of brain insulin receptor in control of body weight and reproduction

Insulin receptors (IRs) and insulin signaling proteins are widely distributed throughout the central nervous system (CNS). To study the physiological role of insulin signaling in the brain, we created mice with a neuron-specific disruption of the IR gene (NIRKO mice). Inactivation of the IR had no impact on brain development or neuronal survival. However, female NIRKO mice showed increased food intake, and both male and female mice developed diet-sensitive obesity with increases in body fat and plasma leptin levels, mild insulin resistance, elevated plasma insulin levels, and hypertriglyceridemia. NIRKO mice also exhibited impaired spermatogenesis and ovarian follicle maturation because of hypothalamic dysregulation of luteinizing hormone. Thus, IR signaling in the CNS plays an important role in regulation of energy disposal, fuel metabolism, and reproduction.     

Insulin receptor of fat cells in insulin-resistant metabolic states

A diminished response to insulin is exhibited by isolated fat cells obtained from rats that have been either starved, or treated with prednisone, or made diabetic by administration of streptozotocin. This decrease in response is not accompanied by changes in the quantity of insulin receptor of these cells or in the affinity of these receptors for insulin. Similarly, the decreased responsiveness to insulin of fat cells obtained from certain species (hamster, rabbit, mouse, guinea pig) is not explainable in terms of alterations of the insulin receptor.     

限饲对初情期小鼠乳腺发育的影响及机制

【目的】研究限饲对初情期小鼠乳腺发育的影响及机制,为动物乳腺发育的营养调控提供科学依据。【方法】选用24只4周龄C57BL/6雌性小鼠,分为对照组和限饲组。试验为期4周,每周称体质量并统计采食量和饮水量,在试验结束前对小鼠进行体成像和体组成检测。试验结束后采集小鼠乳腺并称质量。采集血液,测定血清中胰岛素样生长因子(IGF-1)和雌二醇(E2)的水平。采用Whole-mount染色观察小鼠乳腺发育情况,统计小鼠乳腺终末乳芽(TEB)和导管分支数量。利用免疫荧光染色检测乳腺组织中增殖细胞核抗原(PCNA)的表达。【结果】限饲组小鼠体质量、体增质量、平均日采食量、平均日能量摄入均极显著低于对照组(P0.001),但其饮水量显著高于对照组(P0.05)。限饲对小鼠肌肉含量和脂肪含量无显著影响。限饲使小鼠的乳腺质量降低了29%(P0.05),对乳腺指数无显著影响。Whole-mount染色结果表明,限饲显著抑制初情期小鼠的乳腺发育,其乳腺组织的TEB数量和导管分支数量均显著低于对照组(P0.05)。此外,限饲对血清中E2水平无显著影响,但使血清中IGF-1水平降低了34%(P0.05)。限饲显著抑制了小鼠乳腺组织中PCNA蛋白的表达。【结论】限饲可显著抑制初情期小鼠乳腺发育,这可能与限饲可降低血清中IGF-1水平和乳腺组织中增殖相关蛋白PCNA表达有关。     

奶牛育种中的长寿性状

长寿性状是奶牛育种中最重要的功能性状之一,除产量性状之外,长寿性状具有最大的经济价值。由于遗传力低、数据分布特殊和性状表现晚等特点,长寿性状也是选育难度最大的性状之一。自上世纪50年代起,长寿性状就进入了各国奶牛育种家的视野,针对长寿性状的研究持续进行;上世纪90年代后,各奶业发达国家陆续将长寿性状纳入其奶牛综合选择指数。目前,我国奶牛综合选择指数（CPI）中尚不包含长寿性状,对长寿性状的研究也处于起步阶段。文章通过整理分析奶牛长寿性状的有关研究,从性状定义、遗传评估方法、与其他性状的关系、遗传标记、性状选育策略等方面系统介绍了长寿性状的研究和选育情况。通过汇总有关长寿性状与其他性状遗传相关的研究,阐述了长寿性状与其他性状之间的复杂关系;通过收集各国奶牛选育方案中的相关信息,重点介绍了各主要奶业发达国家对长寿性状的选育策略。此外,本文还通过收集在我国奶牛群体中针对长寿性状开展的研究,概述了奶牛长寿性状在我国的研究现状。长寿性状有许多不同的定义,可使用不同的模型对其进行遗传评估,包括线性模型、阈模型、生存分析模型和随机回归模型等。长寿性状与产量、体型、繁殖、健康和管理类性状等存在低到中等的遗传相关,线性体型性状中,与泌乳系统有关的体型性状与长寿性状的遗传相关较高;繁殖和健康性状表现更好的奶牛,其长寿性状通常表现更好;长寿性状与其他性状之间的遗传关系受牛群选育方向的影响较大,在不同群体中,长寿性状与同一性状的遗传相关不尽相同。奶业发达国家的奶牛综合选择指数中均包含长寿性状,这些国家除了使用直接长寿进行选择之外,部分国家还同时采用间接选择的方法对长寿性状进行选育,常用于间接选择长寿性的其他性状主要包括泌乳系统、腰强度、尻角度、肢蹄和乳房炎抗性等。在不同群体中,均发现了大量与长寿性状相关的遗传标记,其中大多数标记都定位在已报道的与繁殖、疾病和体型等性状相关的遗传区域内。文章还提出了从数据收集、遗传参数估计、遗传标记挖掘、评估模型和选择策略探讨等方面针对我国奶牛群体进行长寿性状研究的必要性。