Emergy Evaluation of Lacandon Maya Indigenous Swidden Agroforestry in Chiapas, Mexico

The Lacandon Maya of Chiapas, Mexico practice a system of swidden agroforestry that mimics the surrounding ecosystem and its successional stages. Their fields rotate through grass (milpa), and shrub (acahual) and forest fallow stages that regenerate soil, nutrients, and seed banks. Each successional stage, including the fallow stages, produces over 25 types of crops, raw materials, and medicines. Lacandon traditionally do not use fertilizers, pesticides or herbicides. An emergy evaluation of Lacandon agroforestry was conducted to quantify resource use, productivity, environmental impact, and overall sustainability. Six systems were analyzed. The Emergy Yield Ratios of the systems ranged from 4.5 to 50.7, which indicated a high level of output per purchased investments. The agroforestry systems had minimal environmental impacts as shown by Environmental Loading Ratios between 0.03 and 0.38. The Emergy Sustainability Index (ESI) of the systems ranged from 12 to 1740, indicating a high level of sustainability. The high ESI values were partially due to a large fraction of renewable resources that varied from 0.72 to 0.97. ESI was dependent upon land area devoted to the system for each family, where greater land area resulted in higher values of ESI. Labor invested did not exhibit a direct effect on sustainability.     

Tree Culture of Smallholder Farmers Practicing Agroforestry in Gunung Salak Valley,West Java,Indonesia

This paper investigates the types of agroforestry system that exist in Gunung Salak Valley, West Java, Indonesia in order to characterize the differences in their basic structure and associated crop plant diversity. Data were collected through rapid rural appraisal, field observation and focus groups, followed by household survey of a sample of 20 agroforestry farmers. Five main agroforestry systems (homegardens, fruit tree system, timber tree system, mixed fruit–timber system, and cropping in the forest understory) exist in the study area, and all of them exhibit a noticeable diversity in terms of both species composition and utilization. Products from farming accounted for an average 24 % of household income. They comprised agroforestry products which contributed IDR 3.25 million/year and other agricultural products contributing IDR 1.66 million/year. The observed agroforestry systems include not only a form of forest dominated by ‘cultivated trees’, but also an anthropogenic vegetation formation derived from agricultural antecedents. In land-use classifications agroforestry systems are not recognized as forestry, but like forests they provide tree products and services. Classification will always be disfunctional if a binary system is applied, thus a more sophisticated approach should be adopted that incorporates the economic and environmental characteristics of a wider range of systems.     

云南山区林农结合模式的探讨

针对云南山区农村的综合治理和开发的现实,面向山区农业的两个转变及体制改革,遵照生态经济原则,从农业生态系统的生态经济协调出发,遵循林农结合系统的“整体、协调、循环、再生”的原则,把云南山区区划为冷温性湿润型、温凉性湿润型、暖温性湿润型、暖温性半湿润型、暖热性湿润型、热性湿润型、热性半干旱型7种林农结合系统,分系统论述该区域的行政范围、自然条件、资源状况、农林生产特点、林农结合的经营模式.经比较分析,归纳与发掘出80种以上的云南山区林农经营模式.每个系统中都有10种以上模式.既反映山区自然的特点,又具有地方、民族特色.     

Agroforestry adoption in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve,Campeche, Mexico

Since farmers engage in a complex, dynamic process of learning-by-doing, evaluating economic incentives, and assessing risks in deciding whether to adopt agroforestry systems, a multi-pronged research approach is required for a complete analysis of adoption potential and to develop effective technological and institutional interventions. A case study is presented for using multiple approaches to analyse the potential for reforestation and improving livelihoods of small farmers through the adoption of agroforestry systems in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico. Specifically, the results from a participatory research project are combined with revealed preference analysis of a household survey to analyse past adoption decisions and preferences, identify limitations, test and evaluate alternatives, and evaluate methods for risk reduction. The participatory research trials suggest that continuous intercropping and line cleaning are equally effective for tree growth, while continuous cropping during the first years offers the additional advantage of early returns to investments through crop production. Farmer participation in the research process, planning of production systems, and annual evaluations, assisted farmers and researchers in identifying limitations, testing and evaluating alternatives, and improving the viability and sustainability of systems. The revealed preference analysis provides insights as to which households are most likely to initially adopt agroforestry systems developed through the participatory research trials. In general, households that originated from the Yucatan Peninsula with more education, more experience both in age of the head of household and technical and project experience, higher incomes, and those that had cleared more forestland were more likely to have experimented with agroforestry systems in the past.     

Contribution of Small-Scale Agroforestry Systems to Carbon Pools and Fluxes: A Case Study from Middle Hills of Nepal

In view of the heavy people’s dependence (80 %) on various forms of land-based resources, carbon sequestration should not only be targeted in forests, but also on private land agroforestry. A survey was conducted in 2011 to investigate the gap in contribution of agroforestry carbon to the household economy in the middle hills region of Rasuwa district of Nepal. A total of 120 households were randomly selected and surveyed, of which eight were further examined for detailed tree carbon measurement. It is estimated that a total of 48.60 ton C per hectare has been stocked in agroforestry sites in the middle hills region. Assuming a carbon price of $US12/ton, the total potential income from carbon sequestration per household would amount to NPR 45,490/ha in 20 years of agroforestry if a payment scheme were introduced. The income from carbon sequestration is quite low compared with other agroforestry income. Policy implications are thus oriented towards farmers reaping multiple benefits from the existing international mechanisms by having negotiations based on contribution of all agroforestry components (farm trees, crops and animals) rather than limited to forest carbon stock. To benefit from these multiple functions of farms and forests, the policy framework to address the climate-related affects and risks (e.g., of landslides, burst of Himalayan lakes) should be broad enough to produce potential synergy between the negative effect of climate change and agroforestry income.     

Review on Agroforestry Systems in China

INTRODUCTIONChina is the most populated country in the world. Thepopulation of the mainland amounts to 1.3 billion in2004. The land area is approximately 9.6 million km2,of which the proportion of arable land is low. Thiscovers about 10% of the total land area; on the average,there is around 0.09 ha of tilled land per capita.Furthermore, the arable land is unevenly distributed inthe country. Forests cover 13.92% of the whole landarea, 134 million ha or 0.095 ha per capita (Xu Xingquanet …     

Implications of Mayan agroforestry for biodiversity conservation in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve,Mexico

Agroforestry for production and ecosystem health is a centuries-old form of ecosystem management used in many cultures indigenous to Mesoamerica, yet implications of such practices for biodiversity conservation are not well understood. Agroforestry systems were studied using interviews of farmers and field surveys of tree and bird diversity in three communities surrounding the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico to examine how differences in forest management practices affect forest biodiversity. Tree diversity and bird species richness were higher in areas surrounding communities that generated a greater variety of forest products and that cultivated “restoration trees,” species planted to aid in regeneration of mature forest. We conclude that traditional ecosystem management methods in areas surrounding natural reserves as practiced by inhabitants who depend on resources in the reserve for survival are compatible with maintaining and perhaps enhancing diversity of bird and tree communities at the site level.     

Changes in arboreal ant populations following pruning of coffee shade-treesin Chiapas,Mexico

Reducing or eliminating shade cover in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) agroforestry systems affects fungal disease and pest outbreaks, coffee yields, and can result in biodiversity loss of important predators, such as ants. Less dramatic changes in shade structure or composition may also affect ants. Shade tree pruning, a common management practice in shaded coffee systems, has unknown consequences for ant communities. The effects of pruning on arboreal ant communities were investigated by measuring ant abundance, distribution, and species richness in the short (1 week) and long-term (6 months) after shade tree pruning in one 25×50 m plot. Shade tree pruning significantly affected the distribution and abundance of two of the most common ant species (Azteca instabilis F. Smith and Camponotus senex textor Forel), and in general did not affect other ants. After pruning, C. senex textor ants were 80% more abundant on coffee plants and shade trees, whereas A. instabilis abundance dropped by 40% on coffee plants and 73% on shade trees after pruning. Additionally, C. senex textor were significantly more widespread, whereas A. instabilis distributions were more restricted. The effects of pruning were strong over the short-term, but were not evident over the long-term. Shade tree pruning did not affect ant diversity. Thus shade tree pruning largely affected certain aspects of arboreal ant communities in one coffee agroforestry system, with important implications for biological control.     

Growing Cloned Teak Seedlings for Small-Scale Farmers in Costa Rica

This paper investigates the profitability of cloned teak seedlings among small-scale farmers in the Canton of Hojancha in Costa Rica. A survey was conducted among small-scale farmers to explore their opinions regarding tree breeding. Most respondents considered that the use of improved seedling material is profitable and their willingness to plant clones in the future was high. The net present value of teak plantations at a 5% discount rate was estimated to be USD 12,330, USD 12,814, USD 14,284 and USD 14,308 per hectare for four non-genetically modified seedling plantations. According to a sensitivity analysis, the profitability of a teak plantation based on non-genetically modified seedlings is more sensitive to changes in timber prices than to changes in silvicultural costs. Investment in clone planting appears potentially highly profitable. With interest rates of 5 and 3%, it was profitable to plant clones if only 1% of genetic gain in volume was achieved and if the price of the clones was not greater than 50% of non-genetically modified seedlings.     

Bringing Agroforestry Technology to Farmers in the Philippines: Identifying Constraints to the Success of Extension Activities Using Systems Modelling

This paper presents a systems modelling approach to evaluating the success of an agroforestry extension program in Leyte, the Philippines. During the program, variables which are intrinsic to farmers’ socio-economic and farming systems were found to have influenced the uptake and acceptance of extension advice. Evaluation of the program therefore depended on identifying the variables and their interdependencies and assessing their relative influence on program outputs. For this purpose, a systems approach which encourages breaking systems into component variables, but also acknowledges the context of problems, assisted construction of models. Using both empirical data collected during program activities and input from stakeholders, Bayesian Belief Network software was used to predict critical success factors for four aspects of the overall extension system, namely recruitment, use of written extension materials, farmers’ self-efficacy and retention of participating farmers throughout the program. A key predicted constraint to program recruitment is farmers’ perception of harvest security and while this variable can be partly addressed through dissemination of information on harvesting legislation, title security cannot. Differing levels of farmers’ education result in differences in predicted reading ability, comprehension of extension literature and possible misconstrual of information. The variable most critical to the development of farmers’ self-efficacy is extended on-farm technical assistance and support.     

Tree Planting by Smallholder Farmers in the Upper Catchment of Lake Tana Watershed,Northwest Ethiopia

Tree growing by smallholder farmers is an emerging livelihood strategy in Lake Tana catchment. The objectives of this study were to (1) identify the most important tree species grown, (2) investigate the drivers of the existing pattern, and (3) identify determinants of the number and diversity of tree species and their spatial patterns. Survey data were collected from 200 households. Multiple linear regression was employed to identify the determinants of tree growing behaviour of households and spatial variables affecting the abundance of tree species. Eucalyptus globulus, Acacia decurrens and E. camaldulensis dominate woodlots. Only a fraction of the forest production is used by the households, the rest being sold as poles or charcoal. Location in relation to market centres, number of livestock owned, landholding size and age of household head were found to positively affected the number of tree species and trees grown. Gender affected the species and spatial pattern of trees. Woodlots, farm boundaries and homesteads were found to be important tree growing niches. These results substantiate the proposition that farmers assign their parcels of land to uses that increase the rent value of the land, and this value is affected by access to roads. Woodlots are on the increase at the cost of productive agricultural land. Provision of a tree planting extension service may increase participation of farmers in tree planting, and a management-oriented tree planting extension service may give desirable results.     

Agroforestry Systems as Alternative Land-Use Options in the Arid Zone of Thal,Pakistan

Agroforestry offers unique opportunities for increasing biodiversity, preventing land degradation, and alleviating poverty, particularly in developing countries, but factors explaining the adoption by farmers are not well understood. A survey of 524 farm households was conducted in Bhakkar district of Punjab, Pakistan to study factors that determine the adoption of agroforestry on the sand dunes in the resource-deficient region of Thal. Two types of agroforestry systems were studied: intercropping and border cropping (also known as boundary or perimeter planting). Both agroforestry systems included irrigated cultivation of the timber trees Eucalyptus camaldulensis (local name: sufeda) and Tamarix aphylla (local name: sars) with wheat, chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) (local name: chana) or cluster beans (Cyamous tetragocalobe) (local name: guars). The majority of the farmers was in favour of intercropping and border cropping. Most farmers reported the protection of nearby crops from dust storms as the most important positive perception about both agroforestry systems. Age, education, and farm to market distance were significant determinants of agroforestry adoption. Older and less-educated farmers, with farms closer to markets were less likely to adopt tree planting or border cropping in Thal. In general, the agroforestry systems examined were more likely to be adopted by farmers who can wait 3–4 years for harvesting crop outputs, but not by poorer farmers who are totally dependent on subsistence agriculture and cannot afford the high initial cost of agroforestry establishment, nor can they wait for crop output for extended periods. Furthermore, the adoption of both agroforestry systems was more likely in remote marginal areas than in areas close to markets. To increase agroforestry adoption rates, government policies should strengthen farmers’ knowledge of every stage of agroforestry through extension services, focusing particularly among the prime prospects, i.e. farmers who will be most likely to adopt agroforestry. Once the prime prospects have adopted it, the older, less-educated, and poor farmers of the rural population can be also focused on to motivate adoption.     

Ants (Azteca sp.) as potential biological control agents in shade coffee production in Chiapas, Mexico

The role of Azteca sp. ants as potential biological control agents was studied in an organic coffee farm in Chiapas, Mexico. Individual larvae of Pieris rapae were placed on trees with artificially enhanced ant activity and both time to disappearance of the larvae and ant activity were recorded. There was a general negative relationship between time to disappearance and ant activity. A census of spiders was made of coffee bushes with and without foraging Azteca, encountering a negative relationship between ants and spiders. These results indicate that Azteca ants have potential as pests through their positive effect on scale insects, but also have potential as biological control agents, through their negative effect on potential herbivores. Furthermore, the correlation between ant and spider densities suggests a complicated relationship between these two predatory organisms, implying a more complicated food web structure than simply ants, homoptera and other herbivores.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Indigenous Agroforestry Systems in Amazonia: From Prehistory to Today

Understanding the historical development of indigenous systems will provide valuable information for the design of ecologically desirable agroforestry production systems. Such studies have been relatively few, especially in Amazonia. The agroforestry systems in Amazonia follow a trail that begins with the arrival of the first hunter-gatherers in prehistoric times, followed by the domestication of plants for agriculture, the development of complex societies rich in material culture, the decimation of these societies by European diseases, warfare, and slavery, the introduction of exotic species, and finally, the present-day scenario of widespread deforestation, in which agroforestry is ascribed a potential role as an alternative land use. Despite the upheavals which occurred in colonial times, greatly reducing the population of native tribes, a review of anthropological and ethnobiological literature from recent decades indicates that a great variety of indigenous agroforestry practices still exist, ranging from deliberate planting of trees in homegardens and fields to the management of volunteer seedlings of both cultivated and wild species. These practices result in various configurations of agroforestry systems, such as homegardens, tree/crop combinations in fields, orchards of mixed fruit trees, and enriched fallows. Together they constitute a stock of knowledge developed over millenia, and represent technologies that evolved along with the domestication of native forest species and their incorporation into food production systems. This knowledge is the basis for the principal agroforestry practice employed by farmers in Amazonia today, the homegarden, and has potential to contribute to the development of other agroforestry systems.     

Bringing Agroforestry Technology to Farmers in Leyte, the Philippines: A Comparison of Two Extension Assistance Regimes

The response of farmers to personalised forestry and agroforestry extension assistance has not been well documented in the Philippines, thus providing the impetus for this research in which the effectiveness of extended on-farm assistance was compared with more limited assistance. In four municipalities in Leyte Island, farmers responded positively to an extended program which helped them overcome problems in germinating and growing seedlings and establishing trees on their land. A limited assistance program which sought to make use of farmers’ familiarity with growing and raising plants was relatively unsuccessful, with less preparation of tree planting sites and a higher rate of abandonment. Allowing farmers freedom to select planting sites and aspects of technical advice which suited their personal circumstances, encouraged a high degree of cooperation between extension staff and farmers, but 38% of farmers neglected post-planting weed control and 35% of sites were inappropriate for growing trees. Destruction of sites by flooding and grazing also caused farmers to blame extension staff even though these risks had been discussed with them beforehand. This suggested that a more interventionist approach would be appropriate for site selection although it may reduce recruitment. The number of farmers recruited through local government staff was low, but attendance by neighbours at locally held demonstrations was high, suggesting an avenue for further recruitment. Overall, the program was successful in shifting the initiative for further planting from extension staff to those farmers who received extended extension assistance.     

Tree Seedling Production Systems in Northern Mindanao, Philippines

This paper examines seedling production systems for small-scale forestry in northern Mindanao, particularly the constraints and opportunities to sustain the operation of smallholder nurseries. Various types of nurseries were identified to examine issues and concerns operators face, and data collected through a survey of nursery operators, discussion with government and NGO personnel, and literature review. Many smallholders in northern Mindanao have been engaged in seedling production, for farm needs and sale in local markets. The interest of smallholder to sustain seedling production depends on market demand and incentives, which translates to financial benefit on sound nursery practices and of reliable access to profitable markets. Activities that will assist smallholder nurseries to achieve full potential have been identified as: available nursery technologies to produce high quality planting materials in sufficient quantity; building farmer groups to facilitate seedling production and enhance the scale of product marketing; building partnerships with various service providers and other stakeholders to address technical, institutional, marketing and policy issues that may hamper the operation of smallholder nurseries; access to markets and market information; and provision of incentives and policy support. Associated benefits from small-scale seedling production accrue to the government, wood processors and to the public in general.     

贵州喀斯特地区农林复合系统的分类

在国内外有关农林复合系统分类研究成果的基础上，结合贵州喀斯特地区的自然环境、社会经济状况以及农林复合系统的发展现状等，按功能分类法将贵州喀斯特地区农林复合系统分为4级：功能、结构、复合模式（组分）、经营方式。     

Sustainability Attributes of a Small-Scale Betel Leaf Agroforestry System: A Case Study in North-eastern Hill Forests of Bangladesh

The Khasia ethnic community of Bangladesh has been a population of forest villagers in the north-eastern hill forests of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, practicing a betel leaf-based agroforestry system on land granted by the Forest Department. Taking a sample forest village of the Sylhet forest division as a case study, this article examines the sustainability attributes of betel leaf production in the agroforestry system. The presence of several positive attributes of sustainability including the composition of agroforestry, disease control, soil fertility management, profitability, socio-cultural acceptability and institutional support indicate that betel leaf production within the agroforestry system is stable under the prevailing traditional management system. Income from the sale of betel leaf is the principal livelihood means and villager’s reciprocal contributions help to conserve forest resources. However, problems with land ownership and regular agreement renewal need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation.

Coffee yields and soil nutrients under the shades of Inga sp. vs. multiple species in Chiapas, Mexico

For many decades, simplification of traditionally shaded coffee-production systems has been an idealised model for increasing yields. In Mexico, coffee producers have been interested in replacing diverse natural shade with Inga species monocultures due to this practice having the supposed advantages of producing higher coffee yields than diverse shade. However, the effect of different shade systems on yields is little known. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of two types of shaded-coffee systems on coffee yields and soil nutrient content; the first shade system is mainly dominated by Inga latibracteata Harms and the other composed of species-rich natural vegetation. The investigation took place in producer plots in the Francisco I. Madero Community, Municipality of Jitotol, Chiapas, Mexico. Collected data included species richness, shade-tree density, number of strata, tree diameter, tree height, shade-cover percentage, direct and diffused light, coffee yields, soil-nutrient concentrations (N, P, K, Ca and Mg), soil-organic matter and pH. Evaluated shade type did not have an effect on grain yield or soil nutrients. The perceived advantage of the Inga shade system is reduced weed emergence, saving farmers one annual weed-clearing. There was no significant correlation between total N and organic matter. The presence of fewer products and services in comparison to the multiple shade system was thought to be an additional disadvantage to the Inga dominated system. Organic matter in the multiple shade system correlated positively with total N. Due to its complex structure and diversity, the multiple shade system could be certified as shade or bird-friendly coffee. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Testing Biodegradable Seedling Containers as an Alternative for Polythene Tubes in Tropical Small-Scale Tree Nurseries

Polythene tubes are the most commonly used seedling containers and their adoption can be attributed to high water retention that enhances seedling establishment as well as the desire for low-cost readily-available containers by nursery operators. Polythene tubes have drawbacks, however, because they adversely affect seedling root growth and are an environmental hazard. This study was conducted in Meru, Eastern Kenya, to investigate whether small-scale tree nursery operators are likely to adopt biodegradable seedling containers (cellulose papers and banana sheaths). It was hypothesised that biodegradable containers are better for seedling growth and are more environmental friendly than the widely used polythene bags. The study assessed the frequency of watering and growth (height and basal diameter) of Calliandra calothyrsus seedlings produced in various biodegradable containers under three conditions with varying watering requirements, i.e. light tree shade, shade net and polythene chambers, the first being widely used by farmers. The performance of these seedlings was later monitored in the field. Seedlings produced in biodegradable containers required more frequent watering than those in polythene bags under light tree shade and shade nets but less frequent in polythene chambers. Seedlings produced in polythene tubes had higher growth rates in the nursery, but when transplanted to the field, they were overtaken by those grown in the biodegradable containers due to transplanting shock after the polythene containers were removed. Biodegradable seedling containers can therefore be adopted in areas where water is not very limiting, and evaporation rates could be reduced and water-use efficiency improved by raising seedlings in simple polythene structures.